Patricia Cantos Design Knitting Abbreviations
Basic knitting abbreviations:
CO cast on (video tutorial)
BO bind off. Also known as cast off (video tutorial)
K knit (video tutorial)
P purl (video tutorial)
st(s) stitch(es)
st st stocking stitch (one row knit, one row purl)
garter st knit every row
RS right side of the work
WS wrong side of the work
[ ] work instructions within brackets as many times as directed
( ) work instructions inside parentheses in the place directed
* repeat instructions following the single asterisk as directed
* *repeat instructions following the asterisks as directed
Decreasing knitting abbreviations:
dec decrease
k2tog knit 2 together (right leaning decrease)
p2tog purl 2 together (right leaning decrease on right side of work)
sl slip stitch from one needle to the other without knitting it
psso pass slipped stitch over the stitch(es) just worked
ssk slip, slip, knit – slip first stitch knitwise, slip second stitch knitwise, insert left needle into slipped stitches from left to right and knit these two stitches together (left leaning decrease)
Increasing knitting abbreviations:
inc increase
kfb knit into the front and the back of the same stitch.
Knit into the stitch, then before slipping it off the needle, twist the right-hand needle behind the left-hand one and knit again into the back of the loop then slip the original stitch off the left-hand needle. (video tutorial)
M1 Make one stitch. Insert right-hand needle from front to back under the horizontal strand that runs between the stitches, insert the left-hand needle under the strand from front to back and knit (or purl) through the back of the loop, slip new stitch off the left-hand needle.
M3 Make three. [Knit one, purl one, knit one] all into the same stitch
yf yard forward. Bring yarn forward as if to purl a stitch, but then knit the stitch taking the yarn over the top of the needle (increase between 2 knit stitches)
yon yarn over needle. Take the yarn over the top of the needle, then between the needles to the front again and then purl the next stitch (increase between 2 purl stitches)
Other knitting abbreviations:
beg begin(ning)
cont.
continue
alt alternate
foll following
est established
patt pattern
rem remaining
rep repeating
tbl through back of loop(s)
w+t wrap and turn (short row shaping technique). Slip the next stitch, bring yarn from back to front, slip the stitch back to the left-hand needle, turn the work.
K1B Knit one below. Insert the right-hand needle through the centre of the stitch below the next stitch on the left-hand needle and knit in the usual way slipping the stitch above off the needle at the same time.
Cable stitch knitting abbreviations:
C2B Cable 2 back. Slip 1 stitch onto cable needle and hold at back, knit 1, knit 1 from cable needle.
C2F Cable 2 front. Slip 1 stitch onto cable needle and hold at front, knit 1, knit 1 from cable needle.
C4B Cable 4 back. Slip 2 stitches onto cable needle and hold at back, knit 2, knit 2 from cable needle.
C4F Cable 4 front. Slip 2 stitches onto cable needle and hold at back, knit 2, knit 2 from cable needle.
Colourwork knitting abbreviations:
MC main colour
CC contrast colour
How to knit a Christmas scarf for a woman
Women’s scarf knitting pattern
Step-by-step knitting instructions
Step 1
Cast on 27 stitches.
Step 2
1, 4, 5, 8, and 9 rows – knit all stitches to end
2, 3, 6, 7, and 10 rows – purl all stitches to end
11th row (right side) – skip1, p1, k1, p1, k2, p15, k2, p1, k1, p1, k1
Step 3
12th row (wrong side) – skip1, p1, k1, p3, k15, p3, k1, p1, k1
13th row – skip1, p1, k1, p1, pu1, k1, sd1, p3, m3, p5, m3, p3, k2tog, k1, pu1, p1, k1, p1, k1
14th row – skip1, p1, k1, p1, k1, p2, k3, p3, k5, p3, k3, p2, k1, p1, k1, p1, k1
15th row – skip1, p1, k1, p2, pu1, k1, 1sd, p2, k3, p5, k3, p2, k2tog, k1, pu1, p2, k1, p1, k1
16th row – skip1, p1, k1, p1, k2, p2, k2, p3tog, k5, p3tog, k2, p2, k2, p1, k1, p1, k1
17th row – skip1, p1, k1, p3, pu1, k1, sd1, p4, m3, p4, k2tog, k1, pu1, p3, k1, p1, k1
18th row – skip1, p1, k1, p1, k3, p2, k4, p3, k4, p2, k3, p1, k1, p1, k1
19th row – skip1, p1, k1, p4, pu1, k1, sd1, p3, k3, p3, k2tog, k1, pu1, p4, k1, p1, k1
20th row – skip1, p1, k1, p1, k4, p2, k3, p3tog, k3, p2, k4, p1, k1, p1, k1
21st row – skip1, p1, k1, p5, pu1, k1, sd1, p5, k2tog, k1, pu1, p5, k1, p1, k1
22nd row – skip1, p1, k1, p1, k5, p2, k5, p2, k5, p1, k1, p1, k1
23rd row – skip1, p1, k1, p6, pu1, k1, sd1, p3, k2tog, k1, pu1, p6, k1, p1, k1
24th row – skip1, p1, k1, p1, k6, p2, k3, p2, k6, p1, k1, p1, k1
25th row – skip1, p1, k1, p7, pu1, k1, sd1, p1, k2tog, k1, pu1, p7, k1, p1, k1
26th row – skip1, p1, k1, p1, k7, p2, k1, p2, k7, p1, k1, p1, k1
27th row – skip1, p1, k1, p8, pu1, k1, dsd, k1, pu1, p8, k1, p1, k1
28th row – skip1, p1, k1, p1, k8, p3, k8, p1, k1, p1, k1
29th row – skip1, p1, k1, p9, pu1, dsd, pu1, p9, k1, p1, k1
Repeat that until you reach the desired length of the scarf.
Step 4
Repeat step 3.
Step 5
Cast off, cut the yarn, and secure it.
Top-Down Chevron Stitch Camisole
Cotton Knit Top – Free Knitting Pattern
This summer cami is knitted in two pieces from the top down.
Yarn-over increases in combination with stitch decreases create a nice laced chevron stitch version. Vertical eyelet lines will make you look slimmer.
A contrasting crocheted trim accentuates and brightens a light primary color.
SIZE
Women’s S [M, L, XL, XXL, XXXL]
Small [Medium, Large, Extra Large, 2 Extra Large, 3 Extra Large]
Level of skills
Intermediate
Stitches
Knit, purl, yarn over, ssk, k2tog
FINISHED MEASUREMENTS
Chest: 32 [36, 40, 44, 48, 52]”
Length (center front/back): 13 [13, 14, 14, 15, 15]”
YARN
Worsted medium-weight cotton, bamboo or acrylic yarn
Primary color: 2 [2.
3, 2.7, 3, 3.5, 4] skeins (125 yds /1.76 oz /50 g each)
Total 250 [288, 338, 375, 438, 500] yds
Secondary (edging) color: 11 [12, 13, 14, 15, 16] yds
RECOMMENDED NEEDLES
US #8 (5 mm) 14-15” straight needles or 24-29” circular needle
NOTIONS
5 stitch markers
Yarn needle for seams and edging
4- or 5-mm crochet hook for edging
GAUGE
16 sts in stockinette /22 rows = 4″/10 cm
18 sts in chevron stitch /22 rows = 4″/10 cm
ABBREVIATIONS
k: knit
p: purl
yo: yarn over
st(s): stitch(es)
rs: right side
ws: wrong side
k2tog: knit two sts together through front loops with right slant
ssk: slip st, slip next st, knit 2 slipped sts together with left slant
m: marker (numbered as m1, m2, etc.
)
pm: place marker
sm: slip marker to right needle
NOTES
It is enough to make a swatch in the above stockinette stitch; with the right gauge in the stockinette, your chevron stitch will be correct too.
Right side: odd rows. Wrong side: even rows.
TUTORIAL
FRONT / BACK (identical)
Cast on 72 [80, 88, 98, 106, 114] sts.
Row 1 (rs):
k7 [9, 10, 11, 12, 13], pm1, yo, k8 [10, 11, 13, 14, 15],
ssk, k1, pm2, k1, k2tog, k14 [14, 16, 18, 20, 22], yo, k1, pm3,
k1, yo, k14 [14, 16, 18, 20, 22], ssk, k1, pm4,
k1, k2tog, k8 [10, 11, 13, 14, 15], yo, pm5, knit to end.
Row 2 (ws): knit.
Row 3: knit to m1, sm1, yo, knit to 3 sts before m2, ssk, k1, sm2, k1, k2tog, knit to 1 st before m3, yo, k1, sm3, k1, yo, knit to 3 sts before m4, ssk, k1, sm4, k1, k2tog, knit to m5, yo, sm5, knit to end.
Row 4: knit.
Row 5: rep row 3.
Row 6 and following wrong side rows to 2 last rows: purl.
Next rows until length at center measures 8 [8, 9, 9, 10, 10]”: rep row 3 on rs and purl on ws.
Each of next 5 right side rows: knit to m1, sm1, yo, knit to 3 sts before m2, ssk, k1, sm2, k1, k2tog, *yo, k2tog, rep from * to 1 st before m3, yo, k1, sm3, k1, yo, **ssk, yo, rep from ** to 3 sts before m4, ssk, k1, sm4, k1, k2tog, knit to m5, yo, sm5, knit to end.
Resume previous pattern (rep row 3 on rs and purl on ws) on following rows and continue until length at center measures 12.5 [12.5, 13.5, 13.5, 14.5, 14.5]”.
Last 4 rows: rep row 3 on rs and knit on ws.
Bind off knit-wise on rs.
FINISHING
Blocking and Sewing
Steam-block the knitted pieces. Sew the side seams with a yarn needle.
Edging and Straps
Using a crochet hook, work upper edging with secondary color yarn in the round:
*(1 slip crochet st, 4 chain sts) twice in same knitted st, rep from *, end 1 slip crochet st to connect to 1st st of round.
Cut off 2 strands of secondary color yarn each approx. 34 [38, 42, 46, 50, 54]” long.
Using a yarn needle, draw one of the strands through the bottom rows making long dashes around.
Repeat this step at the upper edge. Adjust their circumference if necessary.
Cut both primary and secondary yarn for 4 straps. Every strap consists of 2 strands of each yarn 16 [17, 18, 19, 20, 21]” long (total 4 strands per strap). Pull straps through respective triangular edges. Tie and trim them after trying the top on.
MORE PATTERNS
Summer Tops
Sweaters and Tunics
Vests
Vintage Patterns
Baby Sleep Sack | AllFreeKnitting.com
CO 4, PM1, CO 6, PM2, CO 28, PM3, CO6, PM4, CO 4 (48)
Row1 (WS): Purl slipping markers as you come to them.
Row 2 (RS): Kfb, k to one stitch before M1, kfb, sm, kfb, k to one stitch before M2, kfb, sm, kfb, k to one stitch before M3, kfb, sm, kfb k to one stitch before M4, kfb, sm, kfb, k to one stitch before end, kfb. (10 sts inc).
Row 3: Purl slipping markers as you come to them.
Repeat Rows 2 and 3 two more times (78)
Row 9: CO 8, k to k to one stitch before M1, kfb, sm, kfb, k to one stitch before M2, kfb, sm, kfb, k to one stitch before M3, kfb, sm, kfb k to one stitch before M4, kfb, sm, kfb, k to end.
Row 10: CO 8, p to end.
Row 11: K to one stitch before M1, kfb, sm, kfb, k to one stitch before M2, kfb, sm, kfb, k to one stitch before M3, kfb, sm, kfb k to one stitch before M4, kfb, slm kfb, k to end.
Row 12: Purl
Repeat rows 11 and 12 until you have 148(172, 196) total stitches.
Divide for sleeves:
Row 1: K to Ml, remove m, using tapestry needle and waste yarn, slip all sts between M1 and M2 onto waste yarn to hold for Left sleeve.
CO 6, pm, CO6, and join to back, knit across back to M3, remove M and transfer all sts between M3 and M4 onto waste yarn for right sleeve as for left sleeve, CO 6, pm, CO 6 and join to front sts, k to end.
Markers are now located at underarm seam location.
Continue to work in stockinette st for 17 more rows ending with wsr.
Inc row: *K to m, LLI, sm, RLI; rep from * once more, k to end.
Work in Stockinette st working Inc row every 6th row 5 more times. (24 sts inc)
Continue in Stockinette st until work measures 18 (24, 30)” from CO (or 2” less than desired total length.) ending with wsr.
Next row: Kto end, pm, join to work in the round.
K one rnd.
Dec rnd: *K to 2 sts before underarm marker, k2tog, sm, ssk; rep from * once more, k to end of rnd.
Rep dec rnd every other round 9 more times (40 sts dec).
Option 1: BO all stitches and sew front to back at bottom edge.
Option 2: Join front to back by using Kitchener Stitch.
Option 3 (used in the sample): Turn garment inside out and join front to back using 3 needle bind off.
Neckband:
Using smaller circular needle, with rs facing, beginning at right neck edge, pu 14 sts from front, 6 sts along sleeve, 28 sts, across back, 6 sts along sleeve, and 14 sts from left front.
Work in ribbing for 1”.
BO in ribbing.
Zipper slit reinforcement:
Using smaller circular needle, with rs facing, beginning at right neck edge, pu 1 st for each row along right front, 1 st at join, and 1 st along each row of left front.
Turn work and BO all stitches Knitwise.
Sleeves:
Slip[ the sleeve sts onto 2 of the larger dpn. With rs facing you join yarn to right edge of underarm and use a third needle,to pu 6 sts, pm (this is the underarm seam marker), pu 6 sts.
K1rnd slipping some the sts so that each needle has approximately the same number of stitches.
K7 rnds even.
Dec rnd: K1, ssk, k to 2 sts before marker, k2tog.
Rep dec rnd every 8 rnds 4(6,7) more times (28, 30,34 sts remain).
Work even until sleeve meas 5 ½ (6 ½ ,7)” or 1 ½ less than desired length.
Change to small dpn and work rib for 1 1/2”.
BO in rib.
Finishing
Pin zipper in place keeping fronts away from teeth. Sew in place by hand or by machine.
Weave in ends.
Because I used acrylic yarn, instead of blocking, I simply ran it through the washing machine before gifting. This evens out the stitches and softens the garment.
I hope you enjoy this pattern.
Consumption of knitting wire per 1 ton of reinforcement for reinforcement
A frame made of reinforcing bars, connected by welding or wire, serves as a load-bearing basis for reinforced concrete elements. Each of these docking methods has advantages and disadvantages. Welding weakens the reinforcement, moreover, it negatively affects the ability to withstand the forces of soil heaving.
With the help of high-quality knitting wire, they create stable structures for foundations of various types and other building elements.
Approximate determination of the consumption of knitting wire for reinforcement
The required amount of wire depends on the dimensions of the frame, the diameter and the pitch of the longitudinal and transverse reinforcing bars. There are no official norms for the consumption of knitting wire. In each case, this value is determined approximately or more accurately – by calculation. Without reference to a specific type of reinforcing structure, it is impossible to determine the consumption of knitting wire per 1 m3 of concrete or 1 m2 of area.
Attention! General recommendation: the purchase of wire is approximately 1.5 times the amount determined theoretically. This is due to the high probability of wire breakage when tying knots. For products with a diameter of 1.2 mm, the margin should be made even larger.
Methods of approximate calculation of the required amount of production, determined empirically:
- per 1 ton of reinforcement, the consumption of knitting wire is from 10 to 20 kg;
- for knitting one knot takes from 10 to 50 cm of the product, the specific amount depends on the diameter of the reinforcement and the tool used for knitting.
Adjusted determination of wire consumption for reinforcement
For a more accurate determination of the required amount of this product, in each case, the wire consumption per node is calculated. For this, the diameter of the reinforcing bar and the number of strapping points are taken into account. For example, at the point where two horizontal rods intersect with one vertical one, two nodes are made. The thinner the wire, the greater its consumption due to the need to make several turns around the reinforcing bars.
Advice! To connect two rods with a cross-section of 10 mm, a piece of wire of about 25 cm is required, three – 50 cm.
After determining the wire consumption per knot, the result is multiplied by the number of knots. To buy the required amount of wire, it is advisable to know the mass of one meter and the footage of 1 kg.
| Wire diameter, mm | Weight of 1 m wire, kg | Wire length in 1 kg, m |
| 0.6 | 0.002 | 450.45 |
| 0.8 | 0.004 | 253.17 |
| 1.0 | 0.006 | 162.0 |
| 1.2 | 0.009 | 112.6 |
| 1.4 | 0.012 | 82.6 |
| 1.6 | 0.015 | 65.4 |
| 1.8 | 0.022 | 50.0 |
| 2.0 | 0.028 | 40.5 |
Coat for the dog “The Lookout”
Warm dog coat will help your pet to go for walks in cold winter.
Dimensions:
XS (Chihuahua), S (Bichon Frize), M (Cocker Spaniel)
Chest circumference – 28-32 (40-44, 48-52) cm,
Back length – 24 (32, 40).
Required materials:
Yarn Drops Karisma (100% wool; 100 m / 50 grams in a skein) – 2 (2, 3) skeins.
Tools Required:
Circular knitting needles # 3 and # 4, 40 cm long, double-edged needles # 3, stitch markers.
Knitting density:
21 loops and 28 rows = 10 cm of the front surface, made with needles No. 4.
Remark:
The coat is knitted from the neck down in circular rows.
Start of knitting:
Cast on 60 (80: 100) sts with double-edged needles. Connect the loops in a circular row and place a marker for the beginning of the row (the beginning of the row is on the stomach).
Row of elastic: [K2, purl 2] – to the end of the row.
Repeat this row until the elastic reaches 8 (10, 12) cm.
This part is the collar, which is then turned away to form two layers.
Change the needles to No. 4.
Knit 1 circular row with knit stitches, adding 16 (32, 54) sts evenly – on needles 76 (112, 154) sts.
Start knitting of the main pattern:
Only for size XS:
1st circular row: pattern M2, purl 2, pattern M2, purl 3, pattern M3, pattern M2, pattern M1 (this is the middle of the back), pattern M2, pattern M3, 3 purl loops.
DIAGRAMS
Only for size S:
1st circular row: * drawing M2, 2 purl loops; repeat from * 1 more time, drawing M2, * drawing M3, drawing M2; repeat from * 1 more time, drawing M1 (this is the middle of the back), * drawing M2, drawing M3; repeat from * 1 more time.
Only for size M:
1st circular row: * drawing M2, 2 purl loops; repeat from * 2 more times, drawing M2, * drawing M3, drawing M2; repeat from * 2 more times, drawing M1 (this is the middle of the back), * drawing M2, drawing M3; repeat from * 2 more times.
For all sizes:
The 1st circle sets the location of the patterns. Continue knitting in the prescribed order until the length of knitting reaches 12 (16, 20) cm.
Front feet holes:
Slip the first 10 (16, 22) sts onto the stitch holder (this is on the belly), bind off 1 as purl, knit to the end of the row. Turn the knitting and knit the next section of the back in straight and reverse rows.
Next row: bind off 1 as purl, knit to end of row – 64 (94, 130) sts.
Knit 6 (8, 10) cm.Total length of knitting is 18 (24, 30) cm.
Remove the backrest hinges to another hinge holder.
Abdomen section:
Return the belly sts to the needles and cast on 1 st from each edge – 12 (18, 24) sts on the needles.
Continuing to knit in straight and reverse rows and knitting the outermost loops with the purl, continue to perform this section until it reaches a length of 6 (8, 10) cm.
Middle section:
Return all sts to needles – 76 (112, 154) sts.
Then knit in circular rows until the length of knitting reaches 24 (31, 38) cm.
Cast off 12 (20, 28) sts in center of abdomen – on needles 64 (92, 126) sts.
Continue to knit back in straight and back rows.
Bottom edge:
Continue knitting, closing as follows:
Bind off 3 loops at the beginning of the next 2 rows.
Cast off 2 sts at beg of next 4 (6, 8) rows.
Cast off 1 st at beg of next 4 (6, 8) rows.
Cast off 2 sts at beg of next 4 (6, 8) rows.
Cast off 3 loops at beg of next 2 rows – on needles 32 (50, 74) loops.
The length of knitting is 30 (39, 48) cm.
Edge binding:
Slip remaining sts on circular needles # 3 and cast along edge until there are 84 (108, 140) stitches on the needles. Connect the loops in a circular row.
Row of elastic: [K2, purl 2] – to the end of the row.
Repeat this row until the elastic reaches 2 (3, 4) cm.
Loosely close all loops.
Foot holes:
Use double-edged needles to cast on 36 (44, 52) sts around the edge of the paw hole.
Row of elastic: [K2, purl 2] – to the end of the row.
Repeat this row until the elastic reaches 2 (3, 4) cm.
Loosely close all loops.
Description DROPS DESIGN dog coat translated from Knitting Magazine 2019.
Whoever stepped into the rank of a fox, that rank will be a wolf. Alisher Navoi
Author: Galina © All rights reserved
If you find this article necessary, tell your friends about it:
Tags: Knitting with needles
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Thank you Yelechka for the idea of how to name the theme with a cardigan! Thank you very much! on photo hosting → on photo hosting → From this diagram we take the upper right braid |
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Leaves with great gifts left (and, therefore, expressed a desire to knit): |
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Yelechka Reg. |
girls! Congratulations!!!! |
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Now about the threads. on photo hosting → |
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Knopotulya Reg. |
Yelechka , are you with us? Initially, you also expressed a desire to tie him! Join us! 😉 |
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Yelechka Reg. |
I’m with you, of course, only later.I do not have threads yet and 2 underwires. |
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Egle Reg. |
Knopotulya , hurray, thanks for opening the topic! Ladies, I’m with you, I will knit from gray wool with alpaca 50/50, 98m in 50 grams. The thread is strange: it is soft and thin, but heavy, 4-5 mm needles are recommended, but I liked the sample on 3k… I will try, think. I also have a subject for doubts: I am a well-fed person, probably already 50th in size. |
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Knopotulya Reg. |
Carriage of wool and yarn for knitting
Delivery of wool yarn for knitting in balls
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most likely from 3 to 7, depending on how wide the sample will be. 
11.2009 
Until I got used to a new one, I still like all the clothes on a slender figure, and only after putting on I understand that it’s not for me anymore. Do you think this model is still acceptable for a large-sized person? Before knitting, I want to weigh all the pros and cons, otherwise it will be a pity for the time, I have a baby, and it’s so tight with time … 
The thread is strange: it is soft and thin, but heavy, the recommended needles are 4-5 mm, but I liked the sample at 3k … I will try, think. 
.. well, this is for my size, 44-46. This is offhand, I have not knitted a sample yet 
75 cubic meters. Inexpensive shipping preferred| Gross weight with packaging | 200 kg |
| Cargo volume | 0.75 m 3 |
| Number | 4.00 boxes |
| Direction | Oslo (Norway) → Moscow (Russia) |
Cost and delivery terms
To ensure the client’s stated delivery time for goods from Oslo within one month
from the manufacturer’s warehouse to the customer’s warehouse and minimizing the delivery cost, a multimodal was used
transportation by rail and road transport as part of groupage cargo with the included service of customs clearance of goods.
Calculation of the delivery price in rubles, dollars and euros:
| Delivery price per kilogram | 482 ₽ / kg | 6.55 $ / kg | 5.58 € / kg |
| Delivery price per cubic meter | 128 555 ₽ / m3 | $ 1,747 / m3 | € 1,489 / m3 |
| Total Shipping Cost | 96 416 ₽ | 1 310 $ | 1 116 € |
Delivery times and included cargo transportation services:
| Direction | from Oslo to Moscow |
| Delivery time, days | 18-21 |
| Services included | multimodal transportation as part of groupage cargo, customs clearance procedure |
Transportation cost
96 416 ₽
AI 92, AI 95, GOSTs, what is it measured in and how to correctly measure
Table of contents:
one.
GOSTs regulating the brands of gasoline.
2. How the calculations are made.
3. Why do you need to take measurements.
4. How to measure density.
5. Indicators AI 92
6. What indicators correspond to AI 95
7. Tabular density indicators of gasoline
Petroleum products differ in composition, field of application, physical and chemical properties, and production methods. In addition to the octane number (thanks to which it is possible to evaluate the detonation characteristics), there is another defining indicator – the density of gasoline.Specific gravity makes it possible to assess the physical and operational properties of fuel, and is also used to calculate the volume and mass of gasoline, which is important in the transportation of petroleum products, their storage and calibration work for gasoline engines and various devices.
Density is measured in kilograms (sometimes grams) per cubic meter (the limit of the indicator is 780).
Density is not used to assess fuel quality. It depends on the petroleum products that were used in the production of gasoline.
1. GOSTs regulating the brands of gasoline.
The development of the petrochemical industry and the tightening of environmental requirements have led to the development of regulations and standards for petrochemical products. So, since 2002, GOST R 51866-2002 has been in effect, which determines the standards for the presence of metal compounds in gasoline. It regulates the production of high-octane premium gasolines (95, 98 and their types).
GOST 32513-2013 was introduced after the development of the EURO-4 standard for gasoline.Also in 2015, TU 0251-001-12150839-2015 was adopted, which determine the standards for the production of modern grades of fuel.
Cars, oil products and fuel imported into Russia comply with EURO-5 standards. It regulates more than twenty fuel indicators, including the refusal to use substances that harm the environment (poisonous compounds, metal-containing components).
It should be borne in mind that, depending on the technological processes of the manufacturer, the technical characteristics and density of gasoline differ.GOSTs only regulate compliance with the minimum mandatory requirements.
2. How the calculations are made
Measurements of the density of kerosene, diesel fuel, gasoline must be carried out at a certain temperature. At the moment, GOST sets the temperature of 15ºC for gasoline (previously this value was at 20 degrees). Therefore, when calculating, you need to take into account the information that is indicated in the passport for the product, because the results will differ.
In the absence of specialized equipment, theoretical calculations are made based on the data contained in the passport.For the calculation it is necessary (the initial temperature is assumed to be 20ºC):
-
find the density indicator;
-
calculate the temperature of the test fuel;
-
determine the difference between temperature values;
-
in the table of corrections for the density indicators of oil products, find the value of the change by 1 degree;
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multiply the correction for the temperature difference;
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make final calculations – add (if the temperature is below 20 degrees) to the passport indicators, the results obtained or subtract (if higher).
All calculations are performed without the use of laboratory equipment.
3. Why do you need to measure
Density helps evaluate the brand of gasoline and its bulk density. This value is required when dispensing fuel and receiving products.
Due to temperature fluctuations, fuel readings may vary, which can cause disagreements when dispensing and accepting petroleum products.Therefore, in order to standardize the process of measuring the density of petroleum products, rules have been developed for recalculating the amount of petroleum products, depending on the average indicators for fuel brands.
At the same time, the density helps to determine the chemical composition of gasoline and to identify it. Each brand has its own density indicators, which vary within small limits. For example, if, during the measurement, data were obtained that are higher or lower than the standard indicators, then without conducting laboratory chemical analysis it is impossible to be sure of the reliability of the presented fuel grade.
Also, by calculating the density of gasoline, it is possible to determine the approximate mass of large volumes of petroleum products (for example, in tanks) when weighing is not possible. These measurement procedures are specified in GOST R 8.595-2004.
4. How to measure the density of
A prerequisite for carrying out measurements is the organization of the same conditions, because density is the ratio of mass to volume.To get the result, you need:
-
take any container with graduated divisions;
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weigh the container;
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pour 100 ml of fuel into the container;
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weigh the liquid and find the difference in measurement values;
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the result is divided by the volume of fuel.
It will be more convenient to use a hydrometer. It is a specialized measuring instrument that looks like a glass bulb.
It is equipped with a measuring scale, built-in thermometer. The operation of the device is based on the Archimedes principle.
5. Indicators AI 92
Most cars use 92 grade fuel. This gasoline has a high knock resistance. When researching, it shows an AI octane number of 91 or 82.5 (motor method).Density at 15ºC ranges from 740 to 770 kg per m3.
6. What indicators correspond to AI 95
Gasoline of brand 95 shows an octane number of up to 85 with the motor method of research, and an octane rating of up to 95. Gasoline is distinguished by the presence of aromatic components and improved performance. There is no lead in the 95th super gasoline. The density at 15ºC of this gasoline varies from 745 to 755 kg per 1 m3.
7.Tabular density indicators of gasoline
The density of petroleum products used in the automotive industry ranges from 700 to 780 kg per 1 m3. At the same time, depending on the type of oil products and the compounds included in the composition, the density indicators will change.
Thus, aromatic compounds have lower values compared to aliphatic ones.
But this value is not constant. It changes with temperature.With its increase, the indicators decrease, and with a decrease, they increase. Therefore, experts have developed indicators that reflect the density of oil products, depending on the temperature and storage conditions.
Approximate values at 15ºC
|
Gasoline brand |
Density indicators, kg / m3 |
|
92 |
760 |
|
95 |
750 |
|
98 |
780 |
|
Premium 95 |
725-780 |
|
Super 98 |
725-780 |