How do Nike Vapor Carbon Elite TD 2.0 cleats enhance football performance. What innovative features set these cleats apart from competitors. Why are these cleats generating buzz among athletes and sports enthusiasts. How has Nike pushed the boundaries of cleat technology with this model.
The Evolution of Football Cleats: Nike’s Game-Changing Innovation
Football cleats have come a long way since their inception, and Nike has been at the forefront of this evolution. The Nike Vapor Carbon Elite TD 2.0 cleats represent a significant leap forward in cleat technology, offering players unparalleled performance on the field. These cleats combine cutting-edge materials and design to provide superior traction, speed, and agility.
A Brief History of Football Cleat Development
To truly appreciate the innovation of the Nike Vapor Carbon Elite TD 2.0, it’s essential to understand the history of football cleats:
- 1890s: The first spiked football shoes appeared
- 1920s: Removable cleats were introduced
- 1960s: Plastic molded cleats became popular
- 1990s: Lightweight materials like synthetic leather emerged
- 2000s: Focus shifted to customization and improved traction
The Nike Vapor Carbon Elite TD 2.0 builds upon this rich history, incorporating decades of research and technological advancements to create a truly superior product.
Cutting-Edge Features of the Nike Vapor Carbon Elite TD 2.0
The Nike Vapor Carbon Elite TD 2.0 cleats boast several innovative features that set them apart from their competitors. These features work in harmony to enhance a player’s performance on the field.
Flywire Technology: Revolutionizing Fit and Support
One of the standout features of these cleats is Nike’s proprietary Flywire technology. But how does Flywire work? This innovative system uses ultra-lightweight yet incredibly strong cables that wrap around the foot, providing a secure, glove-like fit. The benefits of Flywire include:
- Enhanced lateral stability during quick cuts and direction changes
- Reduced overall weight of the cleat
- Improved breathability
- Customized fit for various foot shapes
By incorporating Flywire, Nike has created a cleat that moves with the athlete’s foot, offering unparalleled support and agility on the field.
Carbon Fiber Plate: Unleashing Explosive Speed
The carbon fiber plate in the Nike Vapor Carbon Elite TD 2.0 is a game-changer for athletes seeking explosive speed. This full-length plate offers several advantages:
- Increased energy return with each step
- Enhanced propulsion during sprints
- Improved overall foot stability
- Reduced fatigue during long games or practices
The carbon fiber plate works in tandem with the cleat’s other features to provide a responsive and dynamic playing experience.
Material Innovation: Lightweight Performance and Durability
The Nike Vapor Carbon Elite TD 2.0 cleats showcase Nike’s commitment to using advanced materials for optimal performance. The upper is constructed from a combination of synthetic leather and mesh, offering a perfect balance of durability and breathability.
Synthetic Leather: Strength Meets Flexibility
The synthetic leather used in these cleats provides several benefits:
- Excellent durability for long-lasting performance
- Water-resistant properties to keep feet dry in various conditions
- Flexibility for natural foot movement
- Easy maintenance and quick cleaning
Mesh Panels: Enhancing Breathability and Comfort
Strategic mesh panels complement the synthetic leather, offering:
- Improved airflow to keep feet cool and dry
- Reduced overall weight of the cleat
- Enhanced flexibility in key areas of the foot
The combination of synthetic leather and mesh creates a cleat that is both durable and comfortable, allowing players to perform at their best throughout the game.
Traction and Grip: Dominating the Field
The Nike Vapor Carbon Elite TD 2.0 cleats feature a carefully designed cleat pattern that provides exceptional traction on various playing surfaces. The strategic placement of cleats ensures optimal grip during quick starts, stops, and directional changes.
Cleat Configuration: Science Meets Performance
The cleat configuration on these shoes is the result of extensive research and testing. Key aspects include:
- A mix of conical and blade-shaped cleats for versatile traction
- Strategically placed cleats for maximum push-off power
- Varied cleat lengths to accommodate different playing surfaces
- Reinforced cleats in high-wear areas for increased durability
This thoughtful design ensures that players can maintain their footing and explosiveness in various game situations and field conditions.
Comfort and Fit: Personalized Performance
Comfort is crucial for any athletic shoe, and the Nike Vapor Carbon Elite TD 2.0 cleats excel in this area. The shoes are designed to provide a snug, supportive fit that feels custom-made for each player’s foot.
Dynamic Fit System: Adaptive Support
The Dynamic Fit system in these cleats offers several advantages:
- Adjustable midfoot straps for a personalized fit
- Elimination of gaps between the foot and the shoe
- Reduced internal slippage during play
- Enhanced overall foot control
This system ensures that players can focus on their performance without worrying about discomfort or instability in their footwear.
Impact on Player Performance: Real-World Results
The true test of any athletic shoe is its impact on player performance. The Nike Vapor Carbon Elite TD 2.0 cleats have garnered praise from athletes at all levels for their ability to enhance various aspects of on-field performance.
Speed and Agility: Measurable Improvements
Many players report noticeable improvements in their speed and agility when wearing these cleats. Some key observations include:
- Faster acceleration off the line
- Improved cutting ability during route running
- Enhanced stability during quick direction changes
- Reduced fatigue during long games or practices
These improvements can make a significant difference in a player’s overall performance and contribution to their team’s success.
Injury Prevention: A Focus on Player Safety
While no shoe can completely prevent injuries, the Nike Vapor Carbon Elite TD 2.0 cleats incorporate features that may help reduce the risk of certain injuries. These include:
- Improved stability to reduce the risk of ankle rolls
- Enhanced cushioning to absorb impact and reduce stress on joints
- Proper cleat placement to minimize strain on the foot and leg muscles
- Secure fit to prevent blisters and other friction-related issues
By prioritizing player safety in their design, Nike has created a cleat that allows athletes to perform with confidence.
The Future of Football Cleat Technology
As impressive as the Nike Vapor Carbon Elite TD 2.0 cleats are, they represent just one step in the ongoing evolution of football footwear. Nike and other manufacturers continue to push the boundaries of what’s possible in cleat design and technology.
Emerging Technologies: What’s Next for Football Cleats?
Several exciting developments are on the horizon for football cleat technology:
- Smart cleats with integrated sensors for performance tracking
- Advanced materials that adapt to different playing surfaces
- Customizable cleat patterns using 3D printing technology
- Improved sustainability in materials and manufacturing processes
As these technologies mature, we can expect to see even more innovative and performance-enhancing football cleats in the coming years.
The Nike Vapor Carbon Elite TD 2.0 cleats represent a significant leap forward in football footwear technology. By combining innovative materials, cutting-edge design features, and a focus on player performance and safety, Nike has created a product that is truly changing the game. As athletes continue to push their limits on the field, we can expect to see further advancements in cleat technology, building upon the foundation laid by groundbreaking products like the Nike Vapor Carbon Elite TD 2.0.
Nike Vapor Carbon Elite TD 2.0 2014 Flywire Cleats
| Condition: | New without box: A brand-new, unused, and unworn item (including handmade items) that is not in original packaging or may be missing original packaging materials (such as the original box or bag). The original tags may not be attached. For example, new shoes (with absolutely no signs of wear) that are no longer in their original box fall into this category. … Read more | Brand: | Nike |
| Featured Refinements: | Nike Vapor Carbon | Main Color: | Red |
| US Size: | 13 | Sport: | Football |
| Width: | Medium (D, M) | Type: | Cleats |
| Product Line: | Nike Vapor Carbon | Model: | Nike Vapor Carbon Elite |
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Nike Vapor Carbon Elite TD 2.0 2014 Flywire Cleats
Nike Vapor Carbon Elite TD 2.0 2014 Flywire Cleats
Sporting Goods
‘They’re fast, but are they fair?’ Amateur runners face Nike dilemma
LONDON (Reuters) – British amateur runner and triathlete Holly Grundon was delighted to smash a long-held personal speed target – to finish a half marathon in less than 1 hour and 30 minutes.
But the 36-year-old’s decision to switch to Nike’s Vaporfly trainers before securing her new personal best (PB) time has her wondering whether she cheated herself, or dirtied a sport she’s always loved for its purity.
“When you’re running you just want to run for yourself,” Grundon told Reuters during a lunchtime run at her local park. “It’s just you against the road and the time that you have in mind to beat.
“So, investing in a pair of trainers that are meant to make you automatically faster – well, there were ethical considerations, and whether it could be cheating, I suppose.”
Scientific studies as well as anecdotal evidence suggest that Nike’s Vaporfly running shoes, equipped with super-springy foam soles encasing a carbon-fiber plate, can increase running efficiency by between 4% and 6%.
That has persuaded millions of amateur athletes to ditch their old favorites and give them a go.
The shoe has also raised question at World Athletics, the sport’s governing body, which looks set to review its rules for elite racing in light of technological advances while allowing recreational runners to wear what they want.
Nike’s chief financial officer Andrew Campion told analysts in December the company’s market share in running had reached a record high in the second quarter of 2019, led by the success of the VaporFly 4% and Next% models.
And the company’s chief executive Mark Parker joked: “The time it takes me to walk across the Nike campus here at headquarters has dropped by at least 4%.
So I’m feeling good about it.”
Grundon’s race distance was a little more ambitious. She described how she’d been chasing the 1:30 half marathon time for a few years, and “inching closer and closer to it”.
When she entered the Madrid half marathon she decided it was going to be her last shot at a PB for a while before taking a training break. She opted to buy Nike’s Vaporfly shoes after seeing other fast runners wearing them and reading reviews.
“They feel very strange to walk in, but as soon as you’re racing and you’re running, they really do feel fast,” she told Reuters. “I smashed my target actually quite considerably.
“But even after the event, that made me wonder whether I should have worn them – because I think I probably could have beaten my target just in my ordinary trainer.”
(This story corrects attribution of quote in paragraph 9)
(Additional reporting by Stuart McDill and Nivedita Balu; Editing by Mike Collet-White)
‘If you don’t wear them, don’t expect to be competitive’: Irish distance runners have their say on the shoes debate
- By John Haughey
- BBC Sport NI
Image caption,
Stephen Scullion says it was “mentally discouraging” to turn up at the startline at last year’s World Championship marathon and see nearly all other competitors wearing the Nike Vaporfly shoe
“I’ve worked so, so hard these last few years but where the sport has moved to now is that the first question someone is asked after a marathon is ‘what shoes did you wear?'”
Ireland’s Olympic Games-qualified marathon runner Stephen Scullion is smiling as he utters the above sentence but it’s a smile of frustration.
A clearly conflicted Scullion says the seemingly almost magical Nike Vaporfly and other similarly technologically advanced shoes rushed out in response by competitor manufacturers have “ruined the sport”.
“But if you don’t wear them, don’t expect to be competitive or you have to be three minutes fitter than everybody else and that’s impossible,” adds Scullion.
Eliud Kipchoge wore Nike’s even more technologically advanced Alphafly prototype shoe when he ran the first sub-two-hour marathon last October.
The Alphafly has since been banned – and Kipchoge’s time is not recognised for record purposes – but the Vaporfly’s legality was confirmed in January and the sight of the mainly pink shoes on the feet of elite distance runners is only going to increase when the sport returns after or perhaps still during Covid-19.
Image caption,
Ann-Marie McGlynn wore the Nike Vaporfly shoes as smashed her marathon personal best in Dublin last October
‘Shoes help with recovery’ – McGlynn
Nike claimed the Vaporfly could improve running efficiency by up to 4% and a New York Times study of more than a million marathons and half marathons since 2014 suggests the company’s own hype may be an underestimation.
The sole – which consists of a foam layer and a carbon fibre plate – is designed to give runners more forward push plus added protection for the legs.
The shoe also appears to help significantly with recovery and this is something Strabane-based Olympic women’s marathon hopeful Ann-Marie McGlynn has noticed – although she insists “the hard work still has to be done”.
“If I wear them on a long progression run, the next day I’m not beaten up the way I normally would have been,” says McGlynn, who at the age of 39 improved her personal best in Dublin last October by over six minutes as she clocked two hours 32 minutes 54 seconds.
“In the World Championships in Doha I didn’t wear the shoes and you’re looking around and there are 80 people on the startline with the green and pink shoes on. It’s mentally discouraging,” adds Belfast man Scullion, who secured Olympic qualification last January by finishing fifth in the gold label Houston Marathon in a new personal best of 2:11:52.
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Video caption,
What’s the deal with the controversial Nike Vaporfly trainers?
‘Clearly performance enhancing’ – Scullion
“A lot of people are losing respect [for the sport]. That’s fair because they are clearly performance enhancing,” says Scullion.
“They make people faster but, at the same time, don’t discredit the hard work that athletes are putting in.
“That’s why it’s ruined it for me and why it’s going to continue to ruin it because it’s going to be a case of ‘what shoes is the athlete wearing?’ and then if the athlete breaks 2:10 no-one is going to believe it.
“If somebody breaks the Irish marathon record in them are you going to feel good about it or are you going to have to call up John [Treacy] and apologise.”
Los Angeles Olympic marathon silver medallist Treacy’s national best of 2:09:15 was set back in 1988 when he finished third in Boston.
After Mark Carroll clocked 2:10:54 in 2002, no Irish athlete ran under 2:13 for nearly 17 years before Scullion, wearing the Vaporfly shoe, posted 2:12:01 in Dublin last October.
‘I hated them the first time I wore them’
On the clock, Scullion’s fellow Belfastman Kevin Seaward, wearing the Nike shoes for the first time in competition, then jumped to second on the all-time Irish list with a 2:10:09 clocking in Seville – which cut exactly three and a half minutes off his PB.
Ironically, the 34-year-old had tried the shoes in a training run for the first time two weeks before Seville and “hated them”.
“They felt like clown shoes. No contact with the ground especially when I was used to wearing such a minimalist shoe,” he recalls.
“I did that workout in them and didn’t put them on until marathon morning in Seville.
“It was actually my coach Andy Hobdell who said to me people were at least running the same [time] when they put on the shoe.
“I was going to bust that race anyway. I was going to run the time or potentially not finish. On the other side of my mind, I had a reserve option in Hamburg.”
The onset of Covid-19 meant the Hamburg race would never happen but Seaward already had qualification in the bag for his second Olympics after competing in Rio.
Image source, Getty Images
Image caption,
Kevin Seaward cut three and a half minutes off his personal best when he secured Olympic qualification at the Seville Marathon in February
‘There may be a placebo effect’
But while Seaward makes no attempt to hide the fact he wore the Vaporfly in Seville, he does emphasise that he was producing his best ever training times in the build-up – apart from that day when he tried the Nike shoes for the first time.
“I ran a 15-miler on a Saturday morning in 4:55 [per mile pace]. It was just in my normal Adidas shoe. It was quicker than in previous marathon build-ups by eight or nine seconds a mile.
“Everything was quicker. I don’t know if you put on the Vaporfly shoe if there is a placebo effect as well.
“I had the confidence to think when I was running that quick on a Saturday morning in Loughborough, when you get yourself out of the roads of Seville or anywhere actually, the roads are closed, everything is perfect.
“There’s no doubt that shoe technology helps but it’s hard to estimate. People have run badly in them too.
“There’s only a certain amount of qualifiers for the Olympics. If you look the position I’ve qualified for the Tokyo Games, it’s better than the 2016 position in terms of ranking.
“Everyone is improving but you’re also improving in the rankings regardless of what you’re wearing on your feet.”
6 Best Vapor Carbon Elite 2014 Td Reviewed and Rated in 2021
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How to Troubleshoot Black Smoke From an Oil Furnace | Home Guides
By Carlye Jones Updated December 19, 2018
Black, gray or thick smoke coming from an oil-burning furnace is a sign of a serious problem and should be considered an emergency, whether the smoke is coming from the chimney, exhaust vent or combustion box. If the problem is not identified and resolved immediately, the furnace could start a structure fire or cause an explosion.
Protect Yourself
In many cases, the black smoke coming out of an oil furnace does not feel hot and does not irritate your eyes and nose. It is still dangerous, however, and contains carbon monoxide and carcinogens that can cause serious health problems. Avoid the front or door of the furnace, which could blow open if too much pressure builds up inside. Call the fire department immediately if you have a fire, explosion, white vapor cloud or other emergency.
Incomplete Ignition
Commonly called puff back, improper ignition occurs when the oil is pushed into the combustion chamber but is not immediately ignited. When the oil does ignite, it does so in a small burst or miniexplosion that produces a large puff of black smoke. A leaping flame is a trademark of puff back as the fire travels to the scattered oil droplets. Sometimes the flame will follow the oil out the furnace door, which can result in a house fire.
If the small explosions become too strong, the burner and furnace can be damaged and the situation can become dangerous.
After Fire
After fire is a result of improper burning or an oil leak. During combustion, a small amount of oil puddles in the bottom of the combustion chamber. This oil keeps burning even after the furnace has shut off. Because it is not controlled and the fan has turned off, it quickly consumes the oxygen in the combustion chamber and produces thick clouds of black smoke. If a flame remains after the furnace has cycled off, you have an after fire.
Quick Action
Immediately turn off the electricity and fuel supply to the furnace. In most cases, an emergency electric shutoff switch will be somewhere near the furnace. It’s important, however, to also turn off the supply of oil. Most furnaces have two shutoff valves — one at the burner and one at the tank. If it is safe to do so, turn off both.
Do not turn the furnace back on until it has been checked by a licensed repairman.
90,000 Specialty 2021
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General instructions
On the exam in biology, applicants to a higher education institution must show:
- knowledge of basic concepts, patterns, and laws in the field of structure, life and development of plants,
- knowledge of the structure and life of plants, animals, humans, classification of plants and animals;
- Ability to substantiate conclusions using biological terms;
- Explain natural phenomena, apply knowledge in practice;
90,013 animal organisms and humans, the development of the whole organic world;
Levels of organization of living nature: cellular, organismic, species, biocenotic, biosphere.
1. Fundamentals of cytology.
Development of cytology and basic provisions of cell theory.
The structure and functions of the main organelles of a eukaryotic cell: membranes, nuclei, cytoplasm, and its main organelles (mitochondria, plastids, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, ribosomes, cell center).
Comparative characteristics of plant and animal cells. The content of chemical elements in the cell. Water and other inorganic substances, their role in the life of the cell.Organic matter of the cell. Carbohydrates, structure, properties and functions in the cell. Lipids, structure, properties and functions in the cell. Proteins, structure, properties and functions in the cell. Enzymes as biocatalysts. Nucleic acids and their role in the cell. Nutritional methods of living organisms (autotrophs and heterotrophs). Cell metabolism, its two sides (energy and plastic metabolism) and the relationship between them. Energy metabolism and its stages, biosynthesis of ATP. Conversion of energy in the cell. Plastic exchange.Photosynthesis, light and dark phase reactions. Chemosynthesis. Protein biosynthesis. Genetic code and its properties. Matrix nature of biosynthesis reactions.
2. Reproduction and individual development of organisms.
Somatic and germ cells. Chromosomes, their structure.
Homologous and non-homologous chromosomes. Haploid and diploid set of chromosomes, the constancy of their number and shape. Preparing the cell for division. Cell cycle (presynthetic, synthetic, postsynthetic periods).DNA replication is the basis for chromosome duplication. Mitosis, its stages and significance. Development of germ cells (ovogenesis and spermatogenesis). Meiosis, its stages and significance. Sexual and asexual reproduction of organisms. Fertilization. Ontogenesis. The development of the embryo (for example, the lancelet). Splitting up. Blastula stage. Gastrulation. Gastrula stage. Embryonic leaves. Organ systems bookmark. Postembryonic development of animals (direct and indirect).
3. Fundamentals of genetics.
Genetics is the science of heredity and variability of organisms.Basic methods of genetics (hybridological, cytogenetic, population-statistical). The value of genetics for medicine and health care (characteristics of methods of human genetics, medical and genetic counseling, prevention of hereditary diseases).
Basic concepts of genetics: dominant and recessive traits, allelic genes, phenotype and genotype, homozygote and heterozygote. Mono- and dihybrid crossing (crossing scheme and analysis of F1 and F2 offspring). The laws of inheritance of traits established by G.Mendel. Uniformity of the first generation and its cytological basis. The intermediate nature of inheritance. The law of cleavage of signs and its cytological foundations. The statistical nature of the splitting phenomena. The law of independent inheritance of traits and its cytological foundations. Genetics of sex. Autosomes and sex chromosomes. Inheritance of sex-linked traits. Concatenated inheritance. Loss of adhesion. Crossing of chromosomes. The main provisions of the chromosomal theory of heredity.
Genotype as an integral system.
The role of the genotype and environmental conditions in the formation of the phenotype. Modification variability. Reaction rate. Statistical patterns of modification variability (variation series and variation curve).
Mutations, their classification (gene, chromosomal and genomic). Mutagenic factors. Genetics and the theory of evolution. Forms of natural selection: driving and stabilizing. Population genetics. Hardy-Weinberg’s law. The law of homologous series in hereditary variation, formulated by N.I. Vavilov.
4. Fundamentals of selection.
N.I. Vavilov on the origin of cultivated plants. The main breeding methods are hybridization and artificial selection. Plant breeding. Self-pollination of cross-pollinated plants. Heterosis. Polyploidy and distant hybridization (examples). Animal breeding. Crossing types and breeding methods. Method of analysis of hereditary economically valuable traits in breeding animals. Remote hybridization of domestic animals (examples). Biotechnology and its main directions: microbiological synthesis, genetic and cellular engineering.
5. Evolutionary teaching.
General characteristics of biology in the pre-Darwinian period. The development of zoology and botany.
The dominance in science of metaphysical ideas about the immutability of nature and “original purposefulness”. Carl Linnaeus’s works on the taxonomy of plants and animals, their significance. The teachings of J. B. Lamarck about the evolution of wildlife and its meaning. Historical preconditions for the emergence of the teachings of Charles Darwin. The main provisions of the evolutionary theory of Charles Darwin. The value of the theory of evolution for the development of natural science.Driving forces of evolution: heredity, variability, struggle for existence, natural selection (examples). Artificial selection and hereditary variability are the basis for breeding domestic animals and varieties of cultivated plants. View criteria. A population is a unit of species and evolution. Microevolution. Speciation (divergence, geographic and ecological speciation, examples). Evolution results: fitness of organisms, relative nature of fitness, diversity of species (examples).
6. Development of the organic world.
Evidence of the evolution of the organic world (data from paleontology, comparative anatomy, comparative embryology, biogeography). The main directions of evolution. Biological progress and regression (examples). Aromorphosis, idioadaptation, general degeneration, their relationships (examples). A brief history of the development and main aromorphoses of the organic world in the Archean, Proterozoic, Paleozoic, Mesozoic and Cenozoic eras.
7. The origin of man.
Evidence of the origin of humans from animals. Driving forces of anthropogenesis: social and biological factors. Stages in human evolution: the most ancient, ancient and fossil people of the modern type. Human races, their origin and unity. The anti-scientific, reactionary essence of social Darwinism and racism.
8. Fundamentals of Ecology.
Subject and tasks of ecology.
Environmental factors: abiotic, biotic, anthropogenic, their complex effect on the body.Range of action of abiotic factors.
Limiting factor. The concept of a population in ecology, changes in its number, methods of population regulation. Biogeocenosis. The structure of the biogeocenosis. Diversity of populations in biogeocenosis and their relationship. Supply chains. Rule of the ecological pyramid. Change of biogeocenoses.
9. Fundamentals of the doctrine of the biosphere.
Components and boundaries of the biosphere.
Biomass of the land surface, the World Ocean, soil.
Living matter and its functions.
The circulation of substances and the conversion of energy in the biosphere (for example, carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus – optional).
1. Tissues of the human body.
Brief information about the structure and functions of the main tissues (epithelial, muscle, connective, nervous).
2. Musculoskeletal system.
The value of the musculoskeletal system. The structure of the human skeleton: the skeleton of the head, trunk, free limbs and their belts (name the main bones of the skeletal sections and indicate the features of their structure).
Features of the human skeleton associated with upright posture. Types of bone joints (fixed, semi-movable, movable joints; give a characteristic of the joints, associate with a function, give examples).The chemical composition of bones. Macro- and microscopic structure of bones (for example, the tubular bone of the extremities). Bone properties, bone growth in length and thickness. Types of bones (tubular, flat, give examples). Skeletal muscles, their structure and function. The main muscle groups of the human body: muscles of the head, trunk, limbs (name the main muscles of each section, indicate their functions). Muscle work. Static and dynamic loads. Influence of rhythm and load on muscle work. Muscle fatigue. Reflex regulation of muscle activity.
3. Blood and circulation
Internal environment of the body (blood, intercellular fluid, lymph) and its relative constancy. Significance of blood and circulation. Blood. Blood plasma, its composition and significance. Blood proteins and their meaning.
The structure and function of the corpuscles – erythrocytes and leukocytes. Blood clotting as a protective reaction of the body. The main stages of the coagulation process. Immunity, its types. The role of I.I. Mechnikov in the creation of the doctrine of immunity. Blood groups, proteins that determine the blood group.Blood transfusion. Donation. Circulatory organs. Heart, its structure and work (cardiac cycle). Automation of the heart. Nervous and humoral regulation of the heart. Large and small circles of blood circulation (the main vessels of the circles of blood circulation, changes in the gas composition of the blood during the movement along the circles of blood circulation). Lymphatic circulation. The structure of blood vessels (arteries, capillaries, veins). The reasons for the movement of blood through the vessels, the speed of movement of blood in various parts of the bloodstream. Nervous and humoral regulation of vascular activity.Blood pressure (maximum, minimum blood pressure; pressure in arteries, veins, capillaries; regulation of blood pressure).
Prevention of cardiovascular diseases. First aid for bleeding. The harmful effects of smoking and alcohol consumption on the heart and blood vessels.
4. Breathing. The meaning of breathing.
The structure and function of the respiratory tract (nasal cavity, larynx, trachea, bronchi). Voice apparatus. The structure and function of the lungs. Gas exchange in the lungs and tissues. Vital capacity of the lungs.Respiratory movements (inhalation and exhalation mechanism). Nervous and humoral regulation of respiration. Artificial respiration. Infectious diseases transmitted through the air, prevention of airborne infections, hygienic regime during illness. Respiratory hygiene. The harmful effects of smoking on the respiratory system.
5. Digestion
The importance of digestion. Nutrients and Foods. The structure and function of the digestive system. Oral cavity (teeth, tongue, salivary glands).Saliva composition. Digestion in the oral cavity. Swallowing. The structure of the stomach, stomach glands, the composition of gastric juice.
Digestion in the stomach. The structure of the intestine (sections – the small and large intestines). Digestion of food in the small intestine (the main enzymes of the pancreas, their effect on nutrients). Large intestine functions. Absorption of substances in the digestive tract. The liver and pancreas, their role in digestion. The role of I.P. Pavlova in the study of the functions of the digestive system. Nervous and humoral regulation of digestion.Hygienic conditions for normal digestion. Prevention of food poisoning, first aid for them. Impact of smoking and alcohol consumption on digestion.
6. Metabolism and energy.
Significance for the body of proteins, fats and carbohydrates, water and mineral salts. Protein, carbohydrate, fat metabolism of the human body (intake of substances, their transformation in the digestive tract and cells). Vitamins, their role in metabolism. Basic vitamin deficiencies.
7.Organs of the urinary system.
The structure of the organs of the urinary system (kidneys, ureters, bladder).
The medulla and cortex of the kidney, the structure of the nephron. Stages of urine formation (filtration, re-absorption). Nervous and humoral regulation of kidney function.
8. Leather.
The structure and function of the skin. The role of the skin in the protection of the body, thermoregulation, secretion. Body hardening. Skin hygiene, hygiene requirements for clothing and footwear. Prevention and first aid for heat and sunstroke, burns and frostbite, electroshock.
9. Endocrine glands.
The structure and function of the endocrine glands (pituitary gland, thyroid gland, adrenal glands, pancreas, sex glands). The concept of hormones. The pituitary gland and its hormones, hypo- and hyperfunction. Thyroid gland, its hormones, hypo- and hyperfunction. Adrenal glands, their hormones, hypo- and hyperfunction. The value of the endocrine glands.
10. Nervous system. Sense organs. Higher nervous activity.
The importance of the nervous system.
Central and peripheral nervous system. The structure and function of the spinal cord and brain regions. The autonomic nervous system, its structure and role in the regulation of the work of internal organs. Sense organs, their meaning. The structure and function of the eye. Accommodation. The structure and function of the ear. Otolithic apparatus and semicircular canals. Touch. Smell and taste. The concept of analyzers. Higher nervous activity. The role of I.M. Sechenov, I.P. Pavlova in the creation of the doctrine of higher nervous activity.Unconditioned and conditioned reflexes, their comparative characteristics. Conditions and mechanisms for the formation of conditioned reflexes. External and internal inhibition of conditioned reflexes. The biological significance of the formation and inhibition of conditioned reflexes. Features of human higher nervous activity. The first and second signaling system.
Sleep, its meaning and hygiene. Hygiene of mental work. Mode for schoolchildren.
The harmful effects of nicotine, alcohol and drugs on the nervous system.
11.Reproduction and development.
Human reproductive organs system. Fertilization and intrauterine development. Birth of a child. The growth and development of the child (characteristics of the neonatal period, infant, nursery, preschool and school periods).
Viruses
Viruses are a non-cellular life form. The structure, reproduction of viruses, their variety. Bacteriophages, viruses that infect cells of plants, animals, humans. AIDS virus. AIDS, its prevention.
Bacteria. Mushrooms. Lichens
Bacteria. Classification of bacteria by cell shape. The structure of a bacterial cell. Auto- and heterotrophic bacteria, aerobic and anaerobic bacteria. Symbiotic, parasitic and saprophytic bacteria. Reproduction of bacteria, the formation of spores. The spread of bacteria in nature. The role of bacteria in nature and human life
Mushrooms. General characteristics of fungi: habitat, nutrition, structure, reproduction of fungi.
Hat mushrooms: structure, nutrition, symbiosis of mushrooms with plants, edible and poisonous mushrooms, mushroom cultivation.
Mold fungi: peculiarities of habitat conditions, structure of mycelium, reproduction of mucor and penicillus. The value of penicillus. Yeast: structure, habitat, reproduction, practical value.
Fungi are parasites that cause plant diseases: smut, ergot, tinder fungus. Features of their nutrition, reproduction, impact on plants.
Lichens: diversity, distribution, structure, nutrition, reproduction. The role of lichens in nature and economy.
Plants.Plant taxonomy
Algae. Unicellular algae. Chlamydomonas: structure, movement, asexual and sexual reproduction. Multicellular green algae (for example, ulotrix or spirogyra): structure, asexual and sexual reproduction. Red and brown algae: distribution, structural features of the thallus, examples. The value of algae in nature and the economy.
Mosses. Kukushkin flax: distribution in nature, external structure and reproduction.
Sphagnum: habitat conditions, peculiarities of the cellular structure of sphagnum leaves, practical significance.
Ferns. Distribution in nature, external structure, reproduction and significance.
Horsetails. Plauns. Distribution in nature, external structure, reproduction and significance.
Gymnosperms. Pine: living conditions, structural features of vegetative organs, reproduction. A variety of conifers (spruce, larch, juniper).
Angiosperms (flowering). Signs of plants of classes (Monocotyledonous and Dicotyledonous). Characteristics of the main families (Cruciferous, Rosaceae, Legumes, Solanaceae, Asteraceae, Liliaceae, Cereals): flower formula, type of inflorescences, fruit, examples of cultivated and wild plants.The structure and reproduction of flowering plants
Plant tissues: structure, function, location of integumentary, basic, mechanical, conductive and educational tissues.
Root. Types of roots. Types of root systems. Root structure: root cap, division and extension zones, suction zone, root hairs, conduction zone.
The main functions of the root: anchoring plants in the soil, absorbing water and minerals, storing nutrients. Root breath. Modification of roots: roots, root tubers, aerial roots, respiratory roots.
Escape. External structure of the shoot: stem, node, internode. The arrangement of leaves and buds on the stem. Kidneys. The structure and function of vegetative and generative kidneys.
Sheet. External structure of the leaf: petiole, leaf blade, stipules. Classification of leaves according to the shape and edge of the leaf blade. The leaves are simple and complex. Leaf vein. Internal structure of the leaf: skin, stomata, columnar, spongy tissue. The structure and role of leaf veins. Leaf functions: photosynthesis, gas exchange, water evaporation.Modifications of leaves: thorns, antennae, trapping leaves of insectivorous plants. Leaf fall.
Stem. Variety of stems (herbaceous, woody, their differences; erect, creeping, curly stems). Internal structure of woody stem: bark, cambium, wood and pith.
Growth ring formation. The movement of mineral and organic substances along the stem. Deposition of spare substances.
Modified shoots: rhizome, tuber, bulb, their structure and meaning.
Vegetative propagation of plants.Stem, root and leaf cuttings, root suckers. Reproduction by creeping shoots, layering, underground modified shoots. Grafting by handle and kidney. Reproduction by tissue culture. The importance of vegetative reproduction.
Flower. Flower structure: peduncle, receptacle, perianth, stamen, pistil. Double and simple perianth. The structure of the stamen and pistil. Flower formula. Flowers are bisexual and dioecious. Monoecious and dioecious plants. Inflorescences: schemes of simple and complex inflorescences, examples, biological significance.
Pollination. Self-pollination and cross-pollination. Signs of wind-pollinated and insect-pollinated plants. Formation of pollen grains and embryo sac. Double fertilization in flowering plants. Seed and fruit formation.
Seed. Seed structure of dicotyledonous and monocotyledonous plants. Germination of seeds. Conditions for seed germination. Breath of seeds. Fruit. Fruit classification. The fruits are simple and complex, single-seeded and multi-seeded, juicy and dry. Distribution of seeds and fruits (examples).
Animals General information about the animal world The main differences between animals and plants, their similarities. The variety of animals. Animal taxonomy. Living environments and habitats of animals. The relationship of animals with each other, relationships with other organisms (predation, lodging, symbiosis, parasitism). The role of animals in nature and significance in human life. Single-celled animals or protozoa. General characteristics of protozoa. Cell structure of a unicellular organism. Vital activity of protozoa: nutrition and digestion, movement, respiration, excretion, reproduction, cyst formation, irritability.The main types of protozoa: Sarcodes, Flagellates, Ciliates, Sporozoans.
Freshwater protozoa: common amoeba, green euglena, ciliate shoe, features of their structure and life. Parasitic protozoa: malaria parasite, dysentery amoeba, lamblia. Distribution and role of protozoa in nature, significance in human life.
Type coelenterates. General characteristics of the type. Lifestyle and habitat, external structure, type of symmetry, variety of body cells, vital functions.The main classes of coelenterates: Hydroid, Scyphoid, Coral. The variety of coelenterates. Freshwater hydra, features of its cellular structure, nutrition, reproduction, movement. Reflex. Regeneration. Marine coelenterates: Jellyfish, Actinia, Coral polyps. The value of coelenterates.
Type Flatworms. General characteristics of the type. Three-layer structure, bilateral external symmetry (body shape, skin-muscular sac), internal structure * and vital processes (nutrition and digestion, respiration, excretion, reproduction, movement).Classification of flatworms: Ciliates, Flukes, Tapeworms.
Variety of flatworms White planaria is a representative of free-living worms, its lifestyle, habitat, structural features and vital activity, systematic position. Parasitic flatworms: liver fluke, bovine tapeworm, pork tapeworm, echinococcus. Systematic position, features of their structure and life, due to a parasitic lifestyle. Life cycles, the concept of changing owners.
Type Roundworms.General characteristics of the type (free-living and parasitic roundworms). External (body shape, skin-muscular sac) and internal structure *, vital activity (nutrition and digestion, respiration, excretion, reproduction, movement). * Note It is necessary to inform about the structure of the digestive, nervous, excretory systems of the indicated types of worms Round worms are parasites of humans and animals, measures for the prevention of parasitic diseases. Ascaris human. Reproduction and development.
Type Ringworms.General characteristics of the type: external (body shape, skin-muscular sac), internal structure ** and vital processes (nutrition and digestion, respiration, excretion, reproduction, movement).
Habitat. Variety of annelids. Classification of annelids. The earthworm is a representative of the Small-bristle class. Structural features, tissues, body cavity, organ systems. Nutrition, breathing, movement, regeneration, reproduction. The role of earthworms in soil formation.
Type Molluscs.General characteristics of the type: external structure (parts of the body, shell, mantle and mantle cavity), internal structure ** and vital processes (nutrition and digestion, respiration, excretion, reproduction, movement). Variety of shellfish. Classification of Molluscs. Toothless is a representative of the Bivalve class. Habitat and lifestyle, features of the external and internal structure, nutrition, respiration, reproduction and development. The Big Pond is a member of the Gastropod class. Habitat and lifestyle, features of the external and internal structure, nutrition, respiration, reproduction and development.The value of molluscs in nature and human life.
Type Arthropods.
General characteristics of the type: external structure (parts of the body, limbs, chitinous cover), internal structure (digestive, nervous, circulatory, respiratory, excretory systems, reproduction). Lifestyle, life processes (nutrition, respiration, movement), variety of Arthropods, classification of Arthropods.
Class Crustaceans. Features of the structure, life, reproduction on the example of crayfish.Crayfish habitat and lifestyle. The value of crustaceans in nature and human life.
Class Arachnids. Features of the external and internal structure, nutrition, respiration, reproduction behavior and development of the spider in connection with life on land. Ticks, structural features and vital functions. Parasitic mites (itch itch, taiga mite) are pathogens and carriers of dangerous diseases. Measures of protection against ticks. The value of arachnids in nature and human life.
Class Insects.Features of the structure, vital processes of insects on the example of the May beetle.
Variety of insects (habitat, external structure, lifestyle, behavior). Types of insect development.
** Note Describe the structure of the digestive, nervous, circulatory, respiratory, excretory systems of the indicated types of animals
Insects – carriers of pathogens of human diseases, human and animal parasites The importance of insects in nature and human life.
Type Chordates.General characteristics of the type (structural features and general features of the body structure of all chordates).
Subtype Skullless. Lancelet, habitat and lifestyle. Features of the structure of the lancelet as the lower chordate.
Subtype Cranial or Vertebrate
Class Pisces. General characteristics of the class on the example of river perch. Features of the external and internal structure (skeleton, muscles, body cavity, digestive, nervous, circulatory, respiratory, excretory systems, sensory organs).Reflexes, behavior. Reproduction and development.
Migration, spawning. Caring for offspring. The adaptability of fish to the habitat.
Class Amphibians. General characteristics of the class using the example of a frog. Features of the structure, movement in connection with the environment (external structure, skeleton, muscles, body cavity, digestive, nervous, circulatory, respiratory, excretory systems, sensory organs). Reproduction and development of frogs.
Class Reptiles. Characteristics of the class on the example of a lizard.Features of the external and internal structure (skeleton, muscles, body cavity, digestive, nervous, circulatory, respiratory, excretory systems, sense organs), behavior in connection with life on land. Regeneration. Reproduction and development. The meaning of reptiles.
Class Poultry. Characteristics of the class on the example of a pigeon. Features of the external and internal structure (skeleton, muscles, body cavity, digestive, nervous, circulatory, respiratory, excretory systems, sensory organs).
Features of the structure and life processes associated with flight. Reproduction and development of birds (reproductive organs, egg structure, types of development of chicks). Seasonal phenomena in the life of birds (nesting, flights; sedentary, nomadic, migratory birds). The meaning of birds.
Class Mammals. Characteristics of the class on the example of a dog. Features of the external and internal structure (skeleton, muscles, body cavity, digestive, nervous, circulatory, respiratory, excretory systems, sensory organs).Complication of the nervous system, sensory organs, behavior. Reproduction and development, taking care of offspring. Diversity of mammals (oviparous, marsupial, placental). The value of mammals.
Class Mammals. Characteristics of the class on the example of a dog. Features of the external and internal structure (skeleton, muscles, body cavity, digestive, nervous, circulatory, respiratory, excretory systems, sensory organs). Complication of the nervous system, sensory organs, behavior.
Reproduction and development, taking care of offspring.Diversity of mammals (oviparous, marsupial, placental). The value of mammals.
90,000 Elite eco-resort that got rid of mosquitoes
- Jessica Bone
- BBC
Photo author, The Brando
Photo caption,
The cheapest two-room bungalows here cost from 3700 dollars per day
Brando is one of the most elite eco-resorts in the world. It is located on one of the atolls in the Pacific Ocean.It would be difficult to imagine that the most modern technologies will be applied here. But it is so.
Brando Resort is located in Tetiaroa, an amazingly beautiful atoll north of Tahiti. The word luxury does not fully convey all its luxury. The cheapest two-room bungalows here start at $ 3,700 per day.
The resort was once owned by Hollywood star Marlon Brando, who was keen to turn it into an eco-friendly place.
Now this place is popular with very wealthy people and celebrities who want to relax without harming the planet.
Photo caption,
Marlon Brando really wanted to turn the atoll into an ecologically clean place.
Some people call the resort “an island for the liberal elite.” Among others, Barack Obama and Beyoncé recently rested here. The resort’s current owner, Richard Bailey, says the resort will achieve zero greenhouse gas emissions in the near future and be self-sufficient in resource consumption.
For example, electricity is obtained here from solar panels, as well as biofuels based on coconut oil.Wastewater is recycled and used for irrigation.
Cooling is provided using a closed heat exchange system – pumps pump cold water from the Pacific Ocean from a depth of 900 meters. With its help, drinking water and indoor air are cooled.
The cooling system operates mainly under the pressure of the water itself and therefore consumes very little energy.
Photo author, The Brando
Photo caption,
Access to the atoll is possible only on a private jet belonging to the resort
“There is a widespread belief that self-sufficiency cannot be combined with luxury holidays, but the Brando resort proves the opposite,” said the teacher from the University of Surrey Graham Miller.
It is clear that guests of the resort must first fly to Tahiti and then fly another 20 minutes to the island. So they still leave a significant carbon footprint.
Wealthy visitors are unlikely to have to brush aside annoying mosquitoes, because the island has a sterilization program that has reduced the population of local mosquitoes by 95%.
As part of this program, scientists breed male mosquitoes infected with Wolbachia, a bacteria that causes infertility.In the wild, males infect blood-sucking female mosquitoes, depriving them of their reproductive function.
Photo author, The Brando
Photo caption,
The fauna of Tetiaroa is very diverse
Similar experiments are carried out in Australia, Colombia and China.
In this way, scientists hope to end diseases such as dengue and Zika virus.
But not everyone managed to achieve such significant results as in Tetiaroa Atoll. The number of mosquitoes there is so small that experts almost never find female mosquitoes, said Frank Murphy, CEO of the Tetiaroa Society, an organization that sterilizes mosquitoes.
“The success of the project convinced the local authorities to fund a larger facility to breed infertile mosquitoes, so the program could reach other Pacific islands,” he says.
Tetiaroa Society fights more than just mosquitoes. There is also a rat problem on the atoll.
Photo by Island Conservation
Caption,
The drone has already been used to combat rats in the Galapagos
“Rats eat everything from baby turtles to seabirds, which negatively affects coral reefs,” Murphy said.
In the fight against rats, new technologies can also help – namely, two-meter drones.
They will scatter poisonous bait that will only attract rats, but will not be of interest to other animals.
The operation will be carried out by the American non-governmental organization Island Conservation, which is dedicated to protecting rare species of animals by ridding them of their enemies.
“Rats can cause the collapse of terrestrial ecosystems,” said Sally Esposito of Island Conservation.“In the past, we used helicopters to deliver bait, but recently we used a drone for the first time on Seymour Island, which is part of the Galapagos archipelago.
“Tetiaroa has more challenging environmental conditions, so this is a great opportunity to test drones. This will allow us to create a safe place for endangered native species such as the red-winged chicken pigeon and southern snail.”
Perhaps the most futuristic project on Tetiaroa is the avatar of the island’s digital ecosystem.Light detectors and Lidar systems are used to create a three-dimensional model.
In the future, data on animals, plants, relief maps and other information will be entered into the system. Using a computer model, it will be possible to predict how the island will react to various scenarios – from flooding to the emergence of new species of animals.
Photo author, RomeoBalancourt
Photo caption,
Perhaps others will follow this example
“Lidar technology allows us to create three-dimensional images of the physical contours of the island, including the soil,” said Neil Davis, scientific director of the Tetiaroa Society.“It’s like putting an island through a scanner.”
The research team hopes in the future to obtain data on the entire ecosystem of the atoll – starting at the molecular level. This will allow local authorities and residents to assess risks and make the right decisions.
Ecotourism is gaining popularity
Photo Credit, Getty Images
Photo Caption,
Leonardo DiCaprio is about to open his own eco-resort
For example, the Parkside Hotel in Canada, like the Brando Hotel, has received platinum certification among several other hotels and resorts for the Green Building Council’s energy efficiency and environmental design guidelines.
The roof of the Parkside Hotel is 290 sq. m. landscaped. The hotel has artificial ponds and rainwater tanks that are used to absorb heat from the air conditioning system.
Photo author, The Brando
Photo caption,
There is no need to be afraid of mosquitoes at this resort
Actor Leonardo DiCaprio, who regularly stays in Brando, is going to open his own eco-resort Blackadore Caye near the coast of Belize in 2020.
According to a study published in the scientific journal Nature Climate Change, the tourism industry is responsible for 8% of the world’s greenhouse gases.This means that all resorts, not just luxury ones, should aim for zero carbon dioxide emissions.
90,000 10 planets not recommended for visiting – News – Forbes Kazakhstan
Space exploration is by far the most ambitious adventure that humanity is at the very beginning of its journey. The mystery of space has always captivated our imagination, and the inevitable discoveries brought only joy and fueled our interest even more.
Nevertheless, the universe is an eerie place.In this list, you will find planets on which tired space rangers are highly discouraged from getting stuck in between flights from star to star, according to our planet.
Carbon Planet
Our planet maintains a high oxygen content relative to carbon. Carbon actually makes up only 0.1 percent of the earth’s mass (hence the scarcity of carbon-based materials like diamonds and fossil fuels). Near the center of our galaxy, where carbon is more abundant than oxygen, the planets are very different.Cosmologists call them carbon planets. The morning sky on such planets is neither crystal clear nor blue. Imagine a yellow fog with black soot clouds. As you descend into the atmosphere, you will find seas of oil and tar. Methane pits and black slime are bubbling on the planet’s surface. The weather forecast is also not the most pleasant: gasoline rains and asphalt hail are expected.
As you may have guessed, precious and very large diamonds are not uncommon in all this thick of carbon.
There is a silver lining, whatever one may say.
Neptune
On Neptune, you will encounter constant winds that sweep the planet at a terrible speed. Reactive wind currents push frozen clouds of natural gas across the northern edge of the Great Dark Spot, an Earth-sized hurricane, at 2,000 km / h. This is twice the speed required to break the sound barrier. Of course, you can’t endure it for long under such a wind. A person who ends up on Neptune is likely to be torn apart and lost forever in these cruel streams.It remains a mystery where Neptune finds energy in order to generate the fastest planetary winds in the solar system, since it is very far from the sun and is very cold inside.
51 Pegasi b
The second name of this planet is Bellerophon, in honor of the ancient Greek hero who tamed the winged horse Pegasus.
This gas giant is 150 times more massive than Earth and consists mainly of hydrogen and helium. The problem is that Bellerophon heats up to 1000 degrees Celsius in the light of its star.The star of the planet Bellerophon is 100 times closer to it than the Sun is relative to the Earth. This heat generates an extremely windy atmosphere. Hot air rises upward, cold air comes to replace it, and all this at a speed of 1000 km / h. Of course, there is no liquid water on the planet. But this does not mean that there is no rain either. The intense heat vaporizes the iron, which then forms iron clouds and rains iron showers on the ground.
Don’t forget your umbrella.
COROT exo-3b
The densest and most massive exoplanet is the world known as COROT exo-3b.It is about the size of Jupiter, but 20 times more massive. The planet is twice as dense as lead. On such a planet, a person will weigh 50 times more than on Earth.
Do not take your leg off the ground – to put it mildly. Such pressure will flatten the person, along with the skeleton and everything that he has, instantly.
Mars
What is bad about Mars for future colonizers and guests is dust storms that can rise in a few hours and go around the entire planet in a few days. These are the largest and most violent dust storms in our solar system.Martian dust vortices rise above the earth’s surface in the same way as Mount Everest, and gain speed at 300 km / h. Once it has arisen, such a storm can stay on the surface of Mars for months. All this is accompanied by powerful temperature changes.
WASP-12b
In short, it is the hottest planet ever discovered. Its temperature reaches 4000 degrees Celsius, and the planet orbits its star closer than any other. Of course, humans are not capable of withstanding high temperatures.
For comparison, the surface of this planet is only twice as cold as the surface of the Sun and twice as hot as lava. Also take into account that the planet is well and very quickly revolves around its star.
Jupiter
Jupiter’s atmosphere generates storms that are twice the size of the Earth itself. These monsters, in turn, generate winds at a speed of 800 km / h and titanic lightning, which are 100 times brighter than their earthly counterparts. Beneath this frightening and gloomy atmosphere lies an ocean of liquid metallic hydrogen 40,000 kilometers deep.Here on Earth, hydrogen is a colorless transparent gas, but in the core of Jupiter, this element takes on a completely different form. In the outer layers of Jupiter, it is the same as on Earth. But the deeper, the higher the pressure. Eventually it becomes so large that it even compresses the electrons in the hydrogen atoms. Under these conditions, hydrogen turns into a liquid metal that conducts electricity and heat and reflects light.
Not the most pleasant conditions.
Pluto
Although not technically classified as a planet, it can still be landed on.Just don’t let the pretty pictures fool you: Pluto is far from a winter’s tale. It is an extremely cold world, with frozen hydrogen, carbon dioxide and methane blanketing most of its surface throughout the 248-year Plutonian year. These ices took on all sorts of colors from pinkish brown to white under the influence of gamma rays from space and the distant sun. On the clearest days, the Sun provides Pluto with just as much light and heat as the full Moon does for the Earth.The temperature on Pluto is about -230 degrees Celsius. It’s too cold even for Siberians.
COROT 7-b
The temperatures on the star-side of the planet are so high they can vaporize rocks. Scientists who simulated the atmosphere of COROT-7b found that the planet most likely does not have volatile gases (carbon dioxide, water vapor, hydrogen), but is filled with rock vapor.
Interestingly, there may even be a semblance of terrestrial weather on the planet, only pebble rain condenses from the atmosphere, and lava rivers flow over the surface.Obviously, life on such a planet is doomed.
Venus
The one who called Venus, the second planet from the Sun, “the Earth’s twin”, was seriously mistaken. Except for size, Venus is nothing like Earth at all. At least the fact that there are a lot of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere of Venus. These gases are responsible for the very inhospitable weather conditions on Venus. Hellish in the truest sense of the word.
Our atmosphere, which is primarily responsible for distributing the energy (and heat) we receive from the Sun, works in a completely opposite way on Venus.Instead of heating the planet to a tropical climate (with an abundance of water in various forms), the atmosphere of Venus simply overheats it, burns it down, wraps it in a blanket of heat.
It is so hot that even harsh satellites and probes do not last long.
Little was known about the planet until the Soviet Union launched the Venus program during the space race. Since the dense atmosphere of Venus is not visible in the visible range, we could not make out in any way what is behind the surface of the “twin of the Earth”.It was rumored that wonderful lifeforms lived on Venus. When the first probe landed on the surface of Venus and began transmitting data, the USSR could congratulate itself on the successful landing of the first probe on an alien planet and simply on the successful landing on the surface of Venus. Unfortunately, the brave new world is not there – in terms of life. Moreover, the surface of the planet is so harsh that the longest life of the probe was 127 minutes, until it died a terrible death of twisted and molten metal. We learned that the ridges and ridges visible on the surface of Venus were the result of tectonic deformations, which indicate that at some point in its life of 4 billion years, Venus was geologically active.
