How do fractal gait patterns change after entrainment to a fractal stimulus. Can newly adopted gait patterns be retained after the stimulus is removed. Which type of visual stimulus leads to more persistent fractal gait patterns.
Understanding Fractal Gait Patterns and Their Significance
Gait, the manner in which we walk, has long been a subject of scientific inquiry. For over a century, researchers have observed that our strides naturally vary from one to the next. This variability was often dismissed as imprecise motor control, especially given that clinical populations tend to show increased variability in stride time intervals compared to healthy adults.
However, recent research has challenged this traditional view. Studies over the past three decades have revealed that the variability in biological rhythms, including gait, may be more complex and meaningful than previously thought. Both healthy and clinical populations can exhibit similar levels of variability in their rhythms, despite differences in functional behaviors.
What are fractal gait patterns?
Fractal gait patterns refer to the self-similar, scale-invariant fluctuations observed in stride intervals during walking. These patterns reflect the complex interactions between various physiological systems involved in locomotion and are believed to be indicative of a healthy, adaptable gait.
The Importance of Adaptive Locomotor Systems
An adaptive locomotor system is crucial for navigating the challenges we face in our daily lives. Our gait must constantly evolve to meet imposed constraints, whether they come from our own bodies, the environment, or the tasks we’re performing. This adaptability allows us to maintain balance, avoid obstacles, and efficiently move through various terrains.
How does gait adaptability impact daily life?
- Improved balance and stability
- Enhanced ability to navigate uneven surfaces
- Reduced risk of falls
- Increased energy efficiency during locomotion
- Better overall mobility and independence
Entrainment to Fractal Stimuli: A Novel Approach to Gait Modification
Previous research has shown that fractal patterns in gait can be altered by entraining individuals to a fractal stimulus. This finding opens up new possibilities for gait rehabilitation and optimization. However, several questions remained unanswered, particularly regarding the retention of these altered gait patterns and the factors that influence stronger entrainment.
What is entrainment in the context of gait?
Entrainment refers to the process by which an individual’s gait patterns synchronize with an external rhythmic stimulus. In the case of fractal entrainment, the stimulus exhibits fractal properties, potentially leading to the adoption of more complex and adaptable gait patterns.
Experiment One: Investigating Fractal Gait Pattern Retention
The first experiment in this study aimed to address the question of retention. Participants walked on a treadmill for 45 continuous minutes, divided into three 15-minute phases:
- Pre-synchronization phase: Walking without a fractal stimulus
- Synchronization phase: Walking while entraining to a fractal visual stimulus
- Post-synchronization phase: Walking without the stimulus to assess retention
What were the key findings of Experiment One?
The results of this experiment were promising. Fractal gait patterns were strengthened during the synchronization phase, indicating successful entrainment to the visual stimulus. More importantly, these altered patterns were retained in the post-synchronization phase, suggesting that the effects of fractal entrainment persist even after the stimulus is removed.
Experiment Two: Continuous vs. Discrete Fractal Stimuli
Building on the findings of the first experiment, the second study compared the effectiveness of continuous and discrete fractal stimuli in promoting persistent fractal gait patterns. The experimental design was similar to the first study, but participants were exposed to either a continuous or a discrete fractal visual stimulus during the synchronization phase.
How do continuous and discrete fractal stimuli differ?
A continuous fractal stimulus presents an uninterrupted, flowing pattern with fractal properties. In contrast, a discrete fractal stimulus provides intermittent, distinct fractal cues. Both types of stimuli contain fractal information, but they differ in how this information is presented to the participant.
What were the results of Experiment Two?
Interestingly, both stimulus types led to equally persistent fractal gait patterns during the synchronization phase. However, a significant difference emerged in the post-synchronization phase. Only the discrete fractal stimulus resulted in the retention of the newly adopted gait patterns. This finding suggests that discrete visual cues may be more effective in promoting long-lasting changes in gait patterns.
Implications for Gait Rehabilitation and Training
The results of these experiments have significant implications for the field of gait rehabilitation and training. The ability to manipulate fractal gait patterns in a predictable manner opens up new possibilities for improving locomotor function in various populations.
How might these findings be applied in clinical settings?
- Development of targeted gait interventions for patients with neurological disorders
- Creation of training programs to enhance gait stability in older adults
- Design of rehabilitation protocols for individuals recovering from lower limb injuries
- Optimization of athletic performance through gait pattern modification
The discovery that discrete visual stimuli lead to better retention of fractal gait patterns is particularly valuable. This information can guide the design of more effective gait training protocols, potentially leading to longer-lasting improvements in locomotor function.
The Role of Virtual Reality in Gait Training
It’s worth noting that the virtual reality stimuli presented in Experiment 2 are part of a pending patent application. This highlights the potential for virtual reality technologies to play a significant role in future gait rehabilitation and training programs.
What are the advantages of using virtual reality for gait training?
- Highly customizable and controllable environments
- Ability to present complex visual stimuli in a safe setting
- Increased patient engagement and motivation
- Potential for remote or home-based rehabilitation
- Easy integration of performance metrics and progress tracking
As virtual reality technology continues to advance, we can expect to see more sophisticated and effective gait training programs that leverage fractal stimuli to optimize locomotor function.
Future Directions in Fractal Gait Pattern Research
While this study provides valuable insights into the manipulation and retention of fractal gait patterns, it also opens up new avenues for future research. There are still many questions to be answered and potential applications to explore.
What are some promising areas for future investigation?
- Long-term retention of fractal gait patterns beyond 15 minutes
- The impact of different fractal dimensions on gait entrainment and retention
- Individual differences in susceptibility to fractal entrainment
- The neurophysiological mechanisms underlying fractal gait pattern adoption
- Application of fractal entrainment to other motor tasks beyond walking
As our understanding of fractal gait patterns and their manipulation grows, we may uncover new ways to enhance human movement and improve quality of life for individuals with mobility impairments.
Methodological Considerations and Limitations
While the results of this study are promising, it’s important to consider the methodological limitations and potential areas for improvement in future research.
What are some key methodological considerations?
- Sample size and population characteristics
- Duration of entrainment and retention periods
- Types and properties of fractal stimuli used
- Treadmill vs. overground walking
- Potential carry-over effects between experimental conditions
Addressing these methodological considerations in future studies will help to strengthen the evidence base and refine our understanding of fractal gait pattern manipulation.
How might these limitations be addressed in future research?
Future studies could consider larger and more diverse sample sizes, including clinical populations. Longer entrainment and retention periods could provide insights into the durability of the observed effects. Investigating a wider range of fractal stimuli and their properties could help optimize entrainment protocols. Comparing treadmill and overground walking conditions could enhance the ecological validity of the findings. Finally, careful experimental design can help minimize potential carry-over effects between conditions.
Practical Applications of Fractal Gait Pattern Research
The findings of this study have potential applications beyond the realm of rehabilitation and clinical settings. Understanding and manipulating fractal gait patterns could have implications for various fields and everyday activities.
In what areas might fractal gait pattern research be applied?
- Sports performance optimization
- Ergonomic design of footwear and walking surfaces
- Development of assistive walking devices
- Urban planning and pedestrian flow management
- Wearable technology for gait monitoring and improvement
As our knowledge of fractal gait patterns expands, we may discover novel ways to enhance human movement and interaction with our environment in various contexts.
How might fractal gait patterns influence product design?
Understanding fractal gait patterns could lead to the development of shoes that better support natural walking rhythms, or the design of treadmills that encourage more adaptive and efficient gait patterns. Wearable devices could incorporate fractal stimuli to subtly guide users towards more optimal walking patterns throughout the day.
The Broader Implications of Fractal Patterns in Biological Systems
The study of fractal gait patterns is part of a larger field investigating the role of fractal patterns in biological systems. These patterns have been observed in various physiological processes, from heartbeats to neural activity.
Why are fractal patterns important in biological systems?
Fractal patterns in biological systems are often associated with health and adaptability. They reflect the complex interactions between various physiological subsystems and may contribute to the robustness and flexibility of living organisms. Understanding these patterns could provide insights into the fundamental principles of biological organization and function.
How does gait research contribute to our understanding of fractal patterns in biology?
Gait provides a unique window into the interplay between neural control, biomechanics, and environmental interaction. By studying how fractal patterns in gait can be manipulated and retained, we gain insights into the adaptability and plasticity of complex biological systems. This research may have implications for our understanding of other rhythmic biological processes and how they can be influenced.
As we continue to explore the fascinating world of fractal patterns in gait and other biological systems, we may uncover new principles that could revolutionize our approach to health, rehabilitation, and human performance optimization. The journey of discovery in this field is far from over, and each study brings us closer to unlocking the secrets of our remarkably adaptive and complex biological rhythms.
Fractal Gait Patterns Are Retained after Entrainment to a Fractal Stimulus
Abstract
Previous work has shown that fractal patterns in gait can be altered by entraining to a fractal stimulus. However, little is understood about how long those patterns are retained or which factors may influence stronger entrainment or retention. In experiment one, participants walked on a treadmill for 45 continuous minutes, which was separated into three phases. The first 15 minutes (pre-synchronization phase) consisted of walking without a fractal stimulus, the second 15 minutes consisted of walking while entraining to a fractal visual stimulus (synchronization phase), and the last 15 minutes (post-synchronization phase) consisted of walking without the stimulus to determine if the patterns adopted from the stimulus were retained. Fractal gait patterns were strengthened during the synchronization phase and were retained in the post-synchronization phase. In experiment two, similar methods were used to compare a continuous fractal stimulus to a discrete fractal stimulus to determine which stimulus type led to more persistent fractal gait patterns in the synchronization and post-synchronization (i. e., retention) phases. Both stimulus types led to equally persistent patterns in the synchronization phase, but only the discrete fractal stimulus led to retention of the patterns. The results add to the growing body of literature showing that fractal gait patterns can be manipulated in a predictable manner. Further, our results add to the literature by showing that the newly adopted gait patterns are retained for up to 15 minutes after entrainment and showed that a discrete visual stimulus is a better method to influence retention.
Citation: Rhea CK, Kiefer AW, Wittstein MW, Leonard KB, MacPherson RP, Wright WG, et al. (2014) Fractal Gait Patterns Are Retained after Entrainment to a Fractal Stimulus. PLoS ONE 9(9):
e106755.
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0106755
Editor: Yuri P. Ivanenko, Scientific Institute Foundation Santa Lucia, Italy
Received: June 16, 2014; Accepted: August 1, 2014; Published: September 15, 2014
This is an open-access article, free of all copyright, and may be freely reproduced, distributed, transmitted, modified, built upon, or otherwise used by anyone for any lawful purpose. The work is made available under the Creative Commons CC0 public domain dedication.
Data Availability: The authors confirm that all data underlying the findings are fully available without restriction. All relevant data are within the paper.
Funding: Manuscript preparation was funded the United States Navy (W91CRB-11-D-0001; subcontract P010202825). The funder had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript.
Competing interests: The virtual reality stimuli presented in Experiment 2 are part of a patent application that is current pending. The application is titled “Virtual reality training to enhance locomotor rehabilitation” and was filed with the United States Patent and Trademark Office (USPTO) under the Patent Cooperation Treaty (PCT) on September 13, 2013 (#59805). The information below is related to the authors’ patent application that encompasses materials used in Experiment 2 of this study. It should be noted that our the authors have only filed a patent application with the United States Patent and Trademark Office (USPTO) under the Patent Cooperation Treaty (PCT), therefore they do not have a patent number yet. The authors confirm that this patent application does not alter their adherence to all PLOS ONE policies on sharing data and materials.
Introduction
Gait consists of a series of strides that naturally and rhythmically vary from stride-to-stride. While this phenomenon has been known for over a century [1], it has often been relegated as imprecise motor control—a position supported by numerous clinical populations that demonstrate an increase in variability in stride time intervals compared to healthy adults [2], [3], [4]. However, research over the past three decades examining the properties of adaptive and functional biological systems has challenged the traditional view of stride interval variability by showing that healthy and clinical populations may present with similar variability in their rhythms, despite having different functional behaviors [5], [6], [7], [8], [9].
All biological rhythms exhibit some level of variability, and while some of these systems remain adaptive and functional, others are maladaptive and dysfunctional. The importance of an adaptive locomotor system cannot be understated as it is constantly evolving to meet imposed challenges from constraints on the person (e.g., neurological conditions), task (e.g., walking and talking), or environment (e.g., walking on ice). Accordingly, risk of injury increases if the person is not able to adapt their gait to one or more of the aforementioned constraints. Thus, the ability to exhibit adaptive gait is a desirable characteristic in order to avoid negative outcomes.
Locomotor adaptability has been demonstrated to be closely tied to the variability of stride-to-stride intervals [10], [11]. Traditionally, variability of locomotor behavior has been measured through summary metrics (e.g., standard deviation and coefficient of variation) that index the magnitude of variability in the behavior of the system. However, twenty years ago, researchers first began to demonstrate that a pathological system may have the same magnitude of variability as a healthy system, while the structure of variability differed [12]. This observation led to the postulate that the structure of variability in a system’s behavior may reflect the system’s inherent flexibility; that is, the system’s ability to exhibit adaptive, functional behavior [9], [10], [11], [13], [14]. More specifically, the rhythmic variability inherent to these systems also exhibited fractal scaling (i.e., patterns of variability at one time scale are similar to those found at other time scales). Thus, more recently, metrics that index the structure of variability have gained favor in the literature because of their ability to quantify the dynamic, time-evolving nature of the locomotor system’s rhythmic behavior.
One way that the variability of these locomotor rhythms has been quantified is through a technique called detrended fluctuation analysis (DFA). DFA was developed to quantify long-range correlations as a means to index repeating patterns at different time scales [15]. The alpha (α) value derived from DFA describes the strength of the long-range correlations and typically ranges from 0.5 (no long-range correlations or randomness) to 1.0 (strong long-range correlations or persistence). Hausdorff and colleagues used DFA to show that persistence is observed in the stride-to-stride intervals of young healthy adults and a shift toward randomness is observed when the agent is constrained by pathology or natural aging [16], [17], [18], [19]. This finding has been extended to show that a shift toward a more random gait pattern is observed when a constraint is imposed on the person, task or environment [20], [21], [22], [23], [24], and may partially account for an increased rate of falls in many populations exhibiting this behavior [10], [25].
One way to enhance current clinical practice is to incorporate gait variability training. Specifically, the development of new interventions to change gait variability patterns would be a unique way to potentially restore functional gait behavior [26]. Our previous work has shown that fractal patterns in gait can be altered when participants synchronize their stride-to-stride intervals to a visual metronome (flashing square on a screen) while they walk on a treadmill [27]. The intervals between flashes of the visual metronome were not consistent; rather, they exhibited a variety of fractal patterns. Thus, by altering the fractal patterns of the visual stimulus and requiring the participant to synchronize their heel strike with the stimulus, our results indicated that the fractal structure in stride-to-stride intervals could be shifted toward increased persistence or randomness. The findings of our work are supported by similar results when a fractal auditory stimulus is used [20], [28], [29], [30], and all of these studies present a similar theme; fractal gait patterns can be altered when synchronizing gait to a fractal stimulus. The next logical question, then, is what happens to the gait patterns when the stimulus is removed? Do the new fractal gait patterns remain or do they return to baseline levels? Hove et al. examined the carry-over effects in Parkinson’s patients after three minutes of gait synchronization to a fractal auditory stimulus, but the retention trial only lasted three minutes [20]. Uchitomi et al. examined the retention of gait patterns in Parkinson’s patients across four days, but also only examined three minute gait trials [30]. Longer retention tests and the identification of factors that influence retention are necessary to develop protocols that may enhance locomotor rehabilitation.
The purpose of this study was two-fold. The first experiment was designed to test whether fractal gait patterns are retained for up to 15 minutes after entraining gait to a fractal stimulus. Entrainment in this study refers to synchronizing gait patterns to a stimulus. It was hypothesized that the gait patterns after the entrainment phase would be similar to those observed during entrainment. In the second experiment, we tested the influence of a continuous (i.e., visual information for synchronization was available nearly the entire time) versus a discrete (i.e., visual information for synchronization was available only at heel strike) fractal stimulus on fractal gait patterns during the synchronization and post-synchronization (i.e., retention) phases. In this experiment, we hypothesized that the continuous stimulus would lead to more a persistent gait pattern in the synchronization phase. It was also predicted that individuals would exhibit fractal gait patterns more similar to the stimulus pattern in the post-synchronization phase when the continuous stimulus was employed. A brief outline of each experiment and the respective methods follows.
Experiment 1 – Determining whether Fractal Gait Patterns Are Retained after Entrainment
This experiment was designed to replicate and expand our previous work using a visual stimulus exhibiting fractal timing patterns as a mechanism for individuals to develop a desired change in fractal timing patterns of gait [27]. This was accomplished by instructing the participants to entrain their gait cycle to the visual stimulus. Our previous work showed that fractal gait patterns in young, healthy adults could be moved toward more random (i.e., toward DFA α = 0.5) or persistent (i.e., toward DFA α = 1.0) patterns when synchronizing their gait cycle to a visual stimulus exhibiting random or persistent patterns, respectively. The logical progression of this work is to determine if those patterns are retained after healthy adults train with a fractal stimulus. We note that the healthy participants in this study were presumed to exhibit adaptive, functional behavior. Thus, requiring them to shift from their baseline behavior (DFA α = 0.75) toward a more persistent behavior (DFA α = 1.0) could be interpreted as shifting a healthy system into a maladaptive system. This is congruent with perspective that interprets any change in behavior (i.e., an increase or a decrease in DFA α) as a shift toward a maladaptive system [10], [31]. However, most clinical populations exhibit a shift toward a more random gait pattern (DFA α = 0.5), so Experiment 1 was designed to be a proof-of-concept study to determine whether more persistent behavior would be adopted when entraining to a fractal stimulus, regardless of the starting point of each participants’ baseline behavior.
Materials and Methods
Participants.
Twelve young healthy adults (7 females and 5 males, age: 23.5±4.5 yrs; height: 1.67±0.09 m; mass: 64.4±8.9 kg) participated. All participants were screened for any neurological conditions or structural injuries that would affect their gait.
Ethics Statement.
The University of North Carolina at Greensboro institutional review board approved all procedures, and all participants signed an informed consent form prior to participation.
Procedure.
Participants walked at a self-selected walking speed (M = 1.08±0.03 m/s) on a treadmill for a total of 45 minutes continuously, which included three 15 minute phases. In the first 15 minutes (pre-synchronization phase), participants walked at their preferred speed, which served as a baseline. In the next 15 minutes (synchronization phase), the participants synchronized their gait cycle to a visual metronome that exhibited persistence (DFA α = 0.98). As in our previous work [27], the visual metronome consisted of a red flashing square that was projected in front of the treadmill and participants were asked to synchronize to the metronome by being at right heel contact when the red square flashed. The average interval between red square flashes was 1.00±0.07 sec. In the last 15 minutes (post-synchronization phase), the metronome was taken away and the participants were asked to walk naturally, just as they did in the pre-synchronization phase. They were not told to attempt to reproduce the gait timing patterns from the synchronization phase, as our goal was to determine what behavior naturally emerged after entrainment to the fractal stimulus.
Twelve reflective markers were attached to the participant and affixed bilaterally on the lower limbs at the mid-thigh, knee, mid-shank, ankle, heel, and toe. Gait kinematics were captured via a Qualisys 3D Motion Capture system at 200 Hz (Qualisys, Gothenburg, Sweden). Even though subjects were asked to synchronize their right heel strike to the visual metronome, we found no difference between legs in our previous work [27], so only the right leg was used in the current analysis. The knee angle in the sagittal plane was then calculated with customized Matlab routines at each time point (1/200th sec) (Mathworks, Natick, MA). Next, the time interval between each peak knee flexion was calculated using a custom Matlab algorithm, creating a stride-to-stride interval time series. Each 45 minute time series was separated into three phases of 15 minute time series within a complete trial: (1) pre-synchronization, (2) synchronization, and (3) post-synchronization. The dynamics of each stride-to-stride interval time series within each phase was analyzed using DFA to index baseline gait dynamics before the metronome (pre-synchronization phase), the degree to which gait dynamics were altered when walking to the metronome (synchronization phase), and the residual effect of the altered gait dynamics when the metronome was removed (post-synchronization phase).
The details of DFA have been outlined elsewhere [15], [32] and in our previous work [27]. Briefly, the time series is first integrated and then divided in boxes (i.e., time durations) of equal size. Next, the data within each box is detrended by applying a line of best fit to the data and determining the deviation of each data point from the line. The average deviation about the line within each box is calculated throughout the time series and then repeated for a variety of box sizes (n = 4 to n = 1/4 × number of data points). A log-log plot is then created by plotting the log of the box size n on the x-axis and the average deviation within each box size on the y-axis. Lastly, a line of best fit is applied to the plot and the slope of the line (α) corresponds to the strength of the long-range correlation. Typical DFA α values for stride-to-stride intervals in gait hover around 0.75. DFA α near 0.5 indicates a more random pattern, whereas values near 1. 0 are tending toward persistence.
Statistics.
All statistics calculated with the IBM SPSS Statistics Package (version 18, IBM Corporation, New York). Summary statistics (mean and standard deviation) and the fractal structure (DFA α) of the stride-to-stride intervals were examined for each phase. Tests of normality (skewness, kurtosis, and Kolmogorov-Smirnov) indicated all dependent variables were normally distributed. A separate repeated measures analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to examine each dependent variable (p≤.05). Follow-up Bonferroni corrected t-tests were used when appropriate.
Results
Summary statistics.
An example of the stride-to-stride interval time series for the 45 minute trial encompassing the three phases is in Figure 1. The middle 15 minutes is expanded in Figure 2 to provide a comparison of the prescribed fractal pattern (metronome intervals) and the corresponding gait behavior (stride intervals) during the synchronization phase. A main effect of phase was observed for the mean, F(2,22) = 74.8, p<.001, partial η2 = .87, and standard deviation, F(2,22) = 97.4, p<.001, partial η2 = .90, of the stride-to-stride intervals. Follow-up tests indicated that the mean and standard deviation in the pre-synchronization and post-synchronization phases were not different, but the synchronization phase had a significantly lower mean and higher standard deviation in the synchronization phase (p<.001; Figure 3).
Figure 1. Time series of the stimulus and stride intervals in Experiment 1.
The fractal time series used to drive the metronome (A) and one participant’s stride interval time series before, during, and after synchronizing with the metronome (B). The mean, standard deviation, and DFA α for each phase is presented. DFA α increased the synchronization phase and remained elevated during the post-synchronization phase.
https://doi. org/10.1371/journal.pone.0106755.g001
Figure 2. Synchronization phase time series for the metronome and stride intervals in Experiment 1.
The fractal pattern of the metronome time series that prescribed the gait patterns is depicted in blue and the actual stride interval time series during the synchronization phase is depicted in red. Although the stride interval time series had greater variability magnitude, similar underlying structure is observed in both time series.
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0106755.g002
Figure 3. Mean, standard deviation, and DFA α of the stride interval time series in Experiment 1.
A significant decrease in mean (A) and increase in standard deviation (B) was observed during the synchronization phase. The dashed gray line indicates the mean (1.00 sec) and standard deviation (0.07 sec) of the fractal stimulus that was used during the synchronization phase. Error bars represent standard error. Asterisks indicate the sync phase was significantly different relative to the pre- and post-sync phases for mean and standard deviation. A significant increase in DFA α (C) was observed in the synchronization phase, which was retained in the post-synchronization phase. Follow-up analyses showed that the post-synchronization elevated values were not only due to immediate retention. Rather, all three 5 minute epochs in the post-synchronization phase exhibited an elevated DFA α value. The dashed gray line indicates the DFA α value (0.98) of the fractal stimulus that was used during the synchronization phase. Asterisks indicate the sync and post-sync phases were significantly elevated relative to the pre-sync phase, and that the post-sync 1–5, 6–10, and 11–15 phases were not different from each other.
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0106755.g003
Fractal structure.
A main effect of phase was observed for DFA α, F(2,22) = 10.5, p = .001, partial η2 = .49, and follow-up tests indicated that DFA α significantly increased when comparing the pre-synchronization phase (0. 72±0.09) to the synchronization phase (0.86±0.07; p<.001). DFA α remained high during the post-synchronization phase (0.83±0.12), and was not significantly different from the synchronization phase (p = .380). However, DFA α was significantly higher in the post-synchronization phase compared to the pre-synchronization phase (p<.001; Figure 3). To determine if the DFA α values during the post-synchronization phase were driven by the initial stride-to-stride interval dynamics in the phase, the 15 minute time series was further separated into three 5 minute, non-overlapping time series. These shortened time series are similar to the duration of the retention time series examined by Hove et al. [20] and Uchitomi et al. [30], which allowed for a more direct comparison between studies. However, those studies only examined retention for 3 minutes following the gait training, whereas our study extended the retention phase to 15 minutes, allowing for three 5 minute non-overlapping time series to be examined. We elected not to shorten the time series to less than 5 minutes, as the patterns indexed by DFA may be inaccurately identified in short time series. No difference in DFA α was observed between the 5 minute intervals, F(2,22) = 1.27, p = .301, partial η2 = .10, indicating that similar fractal structure in the gait dynamics was observed throughout the 15 minute post-synchronization (i.e., retention) phase (Figure 3).
Experiment 2 – Continuous versus Discrete Fractal Stimuli: Determining Which Method Is Better for Fractal Gait Retention
Experiment 1 demonstrated that fractal gait patterns are retained after synchronizing to a fractal visual stimulus. However, the results from our previous work [27] and Experiment 1 indicate that participants are not able to fully match the fractal characteristics of the visual stimulus. In both experiments, participants were instructed to synchronize their gait to a fractal visual stimulus exhibiting a variability pattern of DFA α = 0. 98. In both cases, participants were not able to fully produce the fractal pattern exhibited by the stimulus, but did increase the persistence in their gait patterns during the synchronization phase (DFA α = 0.87±0.06 in [27] and 0.86±0.07 in Experiment 1 of the current study). The same discrete stimulus (flashing red square) was used in both experiments to prescribe the desired gait patterns, and in the absence of continuous visual information, the task required a level of anticipation of when the next square will flash in order to match up the right heel strike to the visual display. Previous work has shown that synchronization performance increases when a continuous stimulus is used compared to a discrete stimulus [33]. Thus, Experiment 2 was designed to investigate if gait patterns could be more precisely shifted when using a continuous fractal stimulus compared to a discrete fractal stimulus during the synchronization phase and if those more persistent patterns were retained in the post-synchronization phase.
Materials and Methods
Participants.
Fifteen young healthy adults (7 females and 8 males, age: 24.7±5.2 yrs; height: 1.77±0.10 m; mass: 75.5±11.5 kg) participated, none of whom participated in Experiment 1. All participants were screened for any neurological conditions or structural injuries that would affect their gait.
Ethics Statement.
The University of North Carolina at Greensboro institutional review board approved all procedures, and all participants signed an informed consent form prior to participation.
Procedure.
Participants attended two data collection sessions over two separate days. Similar to Experiment 1, participants walked for an extended period of time that was separated into three phases. The total time of the two daily sessions in Experiment 2 was shortened to 30 minutes. This led to three 10 minute phases, which still allowed for approximately 500 strides within each phase. In both sessions, participants walked at a self-selected walking speed (0. 93±0.09 m/s) on a treadmill for a total of 30 minutes continuously. For the first 10 minutes, participants walked at their preferred speed, and this served as a baseline trial (pre-synchronization phase). During the next 10 minutes, the participants synchronized to a visual stimulus that exhibited persistence in the inter-beat intervals (DFA α = 0.98, synchronization phase). For the last 10 minutes, the visual stimulus was removed and the participants were told to continue walking (post-synchronization phase). Just as in Experiment 1, the participants were told to walk naturally after the stimulus was removed (i.e., they were not told to attempt to reproduce the fractal patterns from the synchronization phase).
A different visual stimulus was presented in each day and the order was counterbalanced between participants. On one test day, a discrete visual stimulus was presented, and on the other, a continuous visual stimulus was presented. Both stimuli were presented in a virtual environment on a screen in front of the treadmill, and consisted of a black sky, horizon line, and textured ground plane with identical optic flow rates (i. e., the rate of the ground plane moving toward the participants) of 1 m/s (Figure 4). The optic flow rate was set at a constant rate of 1 m/s between participants, even though the participants were allowed to self-select their walking speed. The 1 m/s optic flow rate was selected because it was near the average self-selected walking speed from Experiment 1. The discrete stimulus included two virtual footprints that alternately flashed for 200 ms at eye-height in the virtual environment (Figure 4B), whereas the continuous stimulus included two virtual footprints that continuously slid along the ground plane in an alternating fashion (Figure 4C). In the continuous stimulus, each virtual footprint started by appearing approximately 2 m in the foreground and then slid back toward the participant. Once the virtual footprint reached the edge of the screen, it reappeared in its original position and continued the sliding cycle. The virtual footprint did not include a flight phase. Thus, the sliding footprints provided near continuous information about the timing leading up to the event (appearance of the virtual footprint which prompted heel contact of the corresponding limb) by being visible throughout the majority of the gait cycle, while the discrete stimulus did not. In both stimulus types, the time between appearances of the right virtual footprint was prescribed by a fractal time series and the left virtual footprint appeared halfway through the prescribed time interval. Participants were instructed to be at right heel strike when the right virtual footprint appeared in the foreground and vice versa. The same fractal time series was used to control both stimuli, which exhibited persistence (DFA α = 0.98) and contained 500 data points that were bounded within 1.00–1.35 sec (mean 1.17±0.07 sec). The mean time in the stimuli time series in Experiment 2 was increased to more closely match the baseline stride-to-stride interval time observed in our participants from Experiment 1. However, the same structure and magnitude of variability in the stimuli time series was used for both experiments.
Figure 4. Schematic of the experimental setup in Experiment 2.
While treadmill walking at a self-selected speed, the participants synchronized their heel-strike of each limb with the appearance of a corresponding virtual footprint in the virtual environment that was projected on a screen (A) that consisted of either a discrete (B) or continuous virtual stimulus (C). Both virtual environments contained a moving ground plane, providing optic flow of the environment that closely mimicked the treadmill speed.
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0106755.g004
Identical to Experiment 1, 12 reflective markers were affixed on the lower limbs and 3D motion capture data was collected at 200 Hz (Qualisys, Gothenburg, Sweden). Markers were placed bilaterally at the mid-thigh, knee, mid-shank, ankle, heel, and toe. The sagittal knee angle was calculated from the mid-thigh, knee, and mid-shank reflectors and the stride-to-stride intervals were calculated by determining the time between peak knee flexions in each stride using a custom algorithm created in Matlab (Mathworks, Inc., Natick, MA). The stride-to-stride interval time series were separated into three phases within each stimulus type: (1) pre-synchronization, (2) synchronization, and (3) post-synchronization. Each phase of the stride-to-stride interval time series was submitted to DFA to index the presence and strength of the fractal patterns.
Statistics.
All statistics calculated with the IBM SPSS Statistics Package (version 18, IBM Corporation, New York). Summary statistics (mean and standard deviation) and the fractal structure (DFA α) of the stride-to-stride intervals were examined. As in Experiment 1, only data from the right limb were analyzed because no difference between limbs was observed in our previous research [27] . Tests of normality (skewness, kurtosis, and Kolmogorov-Smirnov) indicated all dependent variables were normally distributed. Separate 2 × 3 (stimulus type × phase) repeated measures ANOVA were used to examine each dependent variable (p≤.05). Follow-up Bonferroni corrected t-tests were used when appropriate.
Results
Summary statistics.
A main effect of phase was observed for the mean, F(2,28) = 25.9, p<.001, partial η2 = .65, and standard deviation, F(2,28) = 88.1, p<.001, partial η2 = . 86), of the stride-to-stride intervals. Follow-up tests indicated that the mean and standard deviation in the pre-synchronization and post-synchronization phases were not different, but the synchronization phase had a significantly lower mean and higher standard deviation in both stimulus types (p<.001; Figure 5). There were no significant differences for stimulus type mean (p = .699) and standard deviation (p = .466), or for the phase × stimulus type interaction for mean (p = .491) and standard deviation (p = .451).
Figure 5. Mean, standard deviation, and DFA α of the stride interval time series in Experiment 2.
A significant decrease in mean (A) and increase in standard deviation (B) was observed during the synchronization phase with both the discrete and continuous stimuli. The dashed gray line indicates the mean (1.17 sec) and standard deviation (0.07 sec) of the fractal stimulus that was used during the synchronization phase. Error bars represent standard error. Asterisks indicate the sync phase was significantly different relative to the pre- and post-sync phases. A significant increase in DFA α (C) was observed in the synchronization phase for both stimuli. However, only the discrete stimulus (black bars) led to the retention of the trained fractal structure, while the continuous stimulus (gray bars) did not lead to retention. The dashed gray line indicates the DFA α value (0.98) of the fractal stimulus that was used during the synchronization phase. Asterisks indicate the sync and post-sync phases were different than the pre-sync phase with the discrete stimulus, but only the sync phase was elevated with the continuous stimulus.
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0106755.g005
Fractal structure.
The fractal structure of the time series prescribing the appearance of the right virtual footprint in both stimuli, along with the stride-to-stride intervals of the right limb for one participant in the pre-synchronization, synchronization, and post-synchronization phases in each stimulus type are shown in Figure 6. A significant main effect of phase was observed for DFA α of the stride-to-stride intervals, F(2,28) = 16.8, p<.001, partial η2 = .55. Follow-up tests indicated that DFA α increased in the synchronization phase in both stimulus types (p<.002). Importantly, in the post-synchronization phase DFA α remained elevated in the discrete stimulus (p = .009) compared to the pre-synchronization phase, but returned to the pre-synchronization level in the continuous stimulus (p = .228; Figure 5). The stimulus type main effect (p = .406) and phase × stimulus type interaction (p = .296) were not significant.
Figure 6. Time series of the stimulus and stride intervals in Experiment 2.
The fractal time series used to drive both stimuli (A) and one participant’s stride interval time series before, during, and after synchronizing with the discrete stimulus (B) and the continuous stimulus (C). DFA α increased in the synchronization phase with both stimuli, but only remained elevated in the post-synchronization phase when the discrete stimulus was employed.
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0106755.g006
Discussion
These experiments replicated previous findings showing that fractal gait patterns shift in a predictable direction when participants synchronize their gait cycle to a fractal stimulus [20], [27], [28], [29], [30]. The purpose of the current experiment was two-fold: (1) to determine if the new fractal gait patterns are retained after the fractal stimulus is removed and (2) to determine if the manner in which the fractal intervals were presented (discrete or continuous stimulus) affect the strength and retention of the fractal gait patterns. Experiment 1 showed that fractal gait patterns are retained up to 15 minutes after the stimulus was removed, supporting our first hypothesis. Our second experiment showed that both a continuous and discrete fractal stimulus could lead to more persistent gait patterns, but the adopted fractal patterns were only retained when the discrete stimulus was used. These results only partially supported our second hypothesis.
Visual or auditory stimulus synchronization is a relatively common method to study the neuromotor properties of timing [34], [35], [36], [37], [38], [39]. However, in all of those studies the stimulus that primed the timing behavior (typically finger tapping or circle drawing) exhibited a constant interval between beats. Given that fractal behavior emerges once the stimulus is removed [40], [41], [42], a stimulus that incorporates fractal patterns may be more useful in the examination of the neuromotor properties of timing. To that end, researchers have begun employing fractal stimuli to discover how timing emerges in a variety of tasks and to examine the flexibility of timing control [20], [27], [28], [30], [43], [44]. A concept supporting much of this research is that of strong anticipation, which suggests that fractal behavior emerges from the individual’s perception of the fractal properties of the stimulus [45], [46], [47]. Thus, the desired fractal behavior of the participant can be manipulated in specific ways, so long as the task requirements are attainable. For example, participants were able to produce a variety of fractal patterns in their finger tap intervals when the fractal properties of a visual stimulus were manipulated [44]. This finding was extended to the timing in stride-to-stride intervals in our previous work, and indicated that a fractal visual stimulus could be used to shift fractal gait patterns toward persistence or randomness [27]. Since natural aging and pathology can shift fractal gait patterns toward randomness, we focused on developing and retaining persistence in Experiment 1 and provided evidence that persistent fractal gait patterns are retained for up to 15 minutes after stimulus removal. Further, we showed that the fractal patterns are not being driven by the immediate locomotor behavior following stimulus removal (minutes 1–5). This expands the work by Hove et al. [20] and Uchitomi et al. [30], which showed that Parkinson’s patients who adopted fractal gait patterns from a fractal auditory stimulus retain the patterns for three minutes. The findings of Experiment 1 in the current study and from earlier work [20], [30] suggest that the production of fractal gait patterns is not merely a consequence of synchronizing to a fractal metronome. Rather, a reorganization of the neuromotor coordination pattern may be occurring, allowing for the retention of the fractal gait patterns after the stimulus is taken away. Future work in this area should focus on the frequency, intensity, and duration needed to expand the retention effect across multiple days and weeks.
The metronome time series had a smaller mean and larger standard deviation than was exhibited in the participants’ baseline gait behavior in both experiments. This required the participants to exhibit faster and more variable strides during the synchronization phase to ensure that they expended effort during task performance. The stride interval mean and standard deviation of participants closely mimicked the mean and standard deviation of the metronome, indicating that the participants were able to synchronize their gait cycle to comply with both the magnitude (mean and standard deviation) and structure (DFA α) of the variably timed metronome. These results are congruent with recent research by Marmelat et al. showing that participants are able to entrain their gait dynamics to a stimulus when the magnitude or structure of variability of a fractal auditory metronome are manipulated [29].
In both our previous work [27] and in Experiment 1 of our current study, the fractal properties of the stride-to-stride intervals fell short of the fractal properties prescribed by the stimulus; a finding incongruent with earlier research that examined fractal timing properties in finger tapping [44]. This could be due to a number of factors: (1) the increased complexity of controlling gait compared to finger tapping (i. e., increased degrees of freedom to control), (2) mechanical factors, such as increased lower limb inertia relative to the inertia of a finger, (3) spatial constraints imposed while walking on a treadmill or (4) difficulty perceiving fractal timing properties from a discrete stimulus. To examine the last potential factor and determine if fractal gait patterns could be more precisely shifted in a desired direction, we elected to investigate whether a continuous visual stimulus influenced the corresponding gait behavior in Experiment 2 of the current study.
Previous work that examined the nature of visual and auditory stimuli to facilitate synchronization suggests that a stimulus containing continuous information preceding the event leads to enhanced synchronization compared to a stimulus that only provides discrete information (i.e., the event only) [33]. In our previous study [27] and in Experiment 1 of the current study, the fractal visual stimulus only provided discrete information that indicated when the participant was to be at heel contact. This information was presented with a visual stimulus that flashed at various time intervals on a screen in front of a treadmill while the participant was walking. This method did not provide the participant with any visual information about when the flash was going to occur. Given the difficulty of synchronizing to a fractal metronome while treadmill walking, it is not surprising that participants’ fractal gait patterns fell short of the prescribed behavior from the visual stimulus when presented discretely. Since visuomotor synchronization has been shown to increase with a continuous stimulus [33], we modified our visual stimulus so that near continuous visual information about the fractal timing between events was available in Experiment 2. This was done via two virtual footprints (one for each leg) that alternately slid along the ground plane until they reached the end of the screen. At that point, the footprint would reappear in the foreground and then slide backward again. Thus, participants were provided with visual information throughout most of the stride that corresponded to different phases of their gait cycle to ensure that participants were at heel contact at the specified time. No difference between stimulus type was observed in the synchronization phase in Experiment 2, and this indicated that the continuous visual stimulus did not enhance the strength of the fractal gait patterns compared to the discrete visual stimulus. It is plausible that the lack of a flight phase in the sliding footprints broke up the continuity of the continuous stimulus, thereby leading to gait behavior consistent with discrete stimulus entrainment. The fractal patterns in the synchronization phase in both stimulus types were nearly identical to our previous study [27], and also to Experiment 1 in the current study. Furthermore, the developed fractal gait patterns were retained with the discrete stimulus, replicating the results from Experiment 1. However, retention was not observed with the continuous stimulus. This is particularly interesting because the magnitude of variability (i.e., standard deviation) was not different in the post-synchronization phases in the two stimulus types, but the structure of variability was, potentially highlighting a reorganization of locomotor control.
The difference in retention of fractal behavior in the two stimulus types may have been due to the attention required to complete the task during the synchronization phase. Since the discrete stimulus offered only information about the event, it is plausible that participants may have more actively attended to the overall timing structure between the events. With the continuous stimulus, visual information was available throughout most of the stride, thereby off-loading the cognitive demand to the task and potentially requiring less attention from the participant. Since fractal gait patterns were shifted toward persistence in both stimulus types in the synchronization phase, but only retained with the discrete stimulus, it is plausible that different strategies were used in each of the stimulus types. Even though synchronizing to both visual stimuli led to altered fractal behavior, the discrete visual stimulus may have provided information that was conducive for the reorganization of locomotor control.
An equally plausible case for these divergent findings could be made based on the idea of constraints. The discrete stimulus dictated heel strike times but allowed the participant to freely vary their movements in an individualized way so that there were myriad movement patterns that led to heel synchronization. Conversely, the continuous stimulus more rigidly defined the gait timing and, thus, forced each participant into a more constrained movement pattern throughout the gait cycle. Constraining gait in this way may not allow the locomotor system to search for and converge on a preferred organization for task completion. Instead, the system may have been forced into an organization that, while adequate for task completion, was not as robust and therefore did not persist once the stimulus was removed. Future studies should examine this question in more detail given its potential implications for the rehabilitation of patients with locomotor deficits. Measures of coordination between limbs that allow for the identification of attractor states (i.e., stable solutions of gait dynamics) could be useful in this pursuit. Such measures would allow for the characterization of different organization patterns, and the stability of such patterns, in the context of a synchronization task such as this.
Conclusions
The concept of developing specific patterns of variability in gait is gaining favor in the literature because of its potential to positively enhance gait functionality [20], [27], [28], [29], [30]. The current experiments examined whether more persistent gait patterns are retained after entrainment and also whether a continuous or discrete stimulus was more appropriate for adopting and retaining fractal gait patterns. The data indicated that fractal patterns are indeed retained up to 15 minutes after stimulus removal. Our results also demonstrated that both a discrete and continuous stimulus are viable tools to alter fractal patterns in gait during synchronization. However, retention of the fractal gait patterns was only observed following the discrete stimulus. This information, in conjunction with previous findings in this domain [26], has begun to lay the foundation for the use of fractal stimuli to alter specific fractal behavior for the restoration of adaptive, functional movement patterns during locomotion.
Author Contributions
Conceived and designed the experiments: CKR AWK. Performed the experiments: MWW KBL. Analyzed the data: CKR AWK MWW RPM WGW FJH. Contributed reagents/materials/analysis tools: CKR AWK MWW RPM. Contributed to the writing of the manuscript: CKR AWK MWW KBL RPM WGW FJH.
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Fractal Gait Patterns Are Retained after Entrainment to a Fractal Stimulus
PLoS One. 2014; 9(9): e106755.
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Christopher K. Rhea
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Department of Kinesiology, University of North Carolina at Greensboro, Greensboro, North Carolina, United States of America,
Adam W. Kiefer
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Division of Sports Medicine, Cincinnati Children’s Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, Ohio, United States of America,
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Department of Pediatrics, College of Medicine, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, Ohio, United States of America,
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Center for Cognition, Action & Perception, Department of Psychology, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, Ohio, United States of America,
Matthew W. Wittstein
1
Department of Kinesiology, University of North Carolina at Greensboro, Greensboro, North Carolina, United States of America,
Kelsey B. Leonard
1
Department of Kinesiology, University of North Carolina at Greensboro, Greensboro, North Carolina, United States of America,
Ryan P. MacPherson
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Department of Kinesiology, University of North Carolina at Greensboro, Greensboro, North Carolina, United States of America,
W. Geoffrey Wright
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Department of Physical Therapy, Temple University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States of America,
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Department of Bioengineering, Temple University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States of America,
F. Jay Haran
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Biomedical Research & Operations Department, Navy Experimental Diving Unit, Panama City Beach, Florida, United States of America,
Yuri P. Ivanenko, Editor
1
Department of Kinesiology, University of North Carolina at Greensboro, Greensboro, North Carolina, United States of America,
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Division of Sports Medicine, Cincinnati Children’s Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, Ohio, United States of America,
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Department of Pediatrics, College of Medicine, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, Ohio, United States of America,
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Center for Cognition, Action & Perception, Department of Psychology, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, Ohio, United States of America,
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Department of Physical Therapy, Temple University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States of America,
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Department of Bioengineering, Temple University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States of America,
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Biomedical Research & Operations Department, Navy Experimental Diving Unit, Panama City Beach, Florida, United States of America,
Scientific Institute Foundation Santa Lucia, Italy,
Competing Interests: The virtual reality stimuli presented in Experiment 2 are part of a patent application that is current pending. The application is titled “Virtual reality training to enhance locomotor rehabilitation” and was filed with the United States Patent and Trademark Office (USPTO) under the Patent Cooperation Treaty (PCT) on September 13, 2013 (#59805). The information below is related to the authors’ patent application that encompasses materials used in Experiment 2 of this study. It should be noted that our the authors have only filed a patent application with the United States Patent and Trademark Office (USPTO) under the Patent Cooperation Treaty (PCT), therefore they do not have a patent number yet. The authors confirm that this patent application does not alter their adherence to all PLOS ONE policies on sharing data and materials.
Conceived and designed the experiments: CKR AWK. Performed the experiments: MWW KBL. Analyzed the data: CKR AWK MWW RPM WGW FJH. Contributed reagents/materials/analysis tools: CKR AWK MWW RPM. Contributed to the writing of the manuscript: CKR AWK MWW KBL RPM WGW FJH.
Received 2014 Jun 16; Accepted 2014 Aug 1.
This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Public Domain declaration, which stipulates that, once placed in the public domain, this work may be freely reproduced, distributed, transmitted, modified, built upon, or otherwise used by anyone for any lawful purpose.
This article has been cited by other articles in PMC.
- Data Availability Statement
The authors confirm that all data underlying the findings are fully available without restriction. All relevant data are within the paper.
Abstract
Previous work has shown that fractal patterns in gait can be altered by entraining to a fractal stimulus. However, little is understood about how long those patterns are retained or which factors may influence stronger entrainment or retention. In experiment one, participants walked on a treadmill for 45 continuous minutes, which was separated into three phases. The first 15 minutes (pre-synchronization phase) consisted of walking without a fractal stimulus, the second 15 minutes consisted of walking while entraining to a fractal visual stimulus (synchronization phase), and the last 15 minutes (post-synchronization phase) consisted of walking without the stimulus to determine if the patterns adopted from the stimulus were retained. Fractal gait patterns were strengthened during the synchronization phase and were retained in the post-synchronization phase. In experiment two, similar methods were used to compare a continuous fractal stimulus to a discrete fractal stimulus to determine which stimulus type led to more persistent fractal gait patterns in the synchronization and post-synchronization (i.e., retention) phases. Both stimulus types led to equally persistent patterns in the synchronization phase, but only the discrete fractal stimulus led to retention of the patterns. The results add to the growing body of literature showing that fractal gait patterns can be manipulated in a predictable manner. Further, our results add to the literature by showing that the newly adopted gait patterns are retained for up to 15 minutes after entrainment and showed that a discrete visual stimulus is a better method to influence retention.
Introduction
Gait consists of a series of strides that naturally and rhythmically vary from stride-to-stride. While this phenomenon has been known for over a century [1], it has often been relegated as imprecise motor control—a position supported by numerous clinical populations that demonstrate an increase in variability in stride time intervals compared to healthy adults [2], [3], [4]. However, research over the past three decades examining the properties of adaptive and functional biological systems has challenged the traditional view of stride interval variability by showing that healthy and clinical populations may present with similar variability in their rhythms, despite having different functional behaviors [5], [6], [7], [8], [9].
All biological rhythms exhibit some level of variability, and while some of these systems remain adaptive and functional, others are maladaptive and dysfunctional. The importance of an adaptive locomotor system cannot be understated as it is constantly evolving to meet imposed challenges from constraints on the person (e.g., neurological conditions), task (e.g., walking and talking), or environment (e.g., walking on ice). Accordingly, risk of injury increases if the person is not able to adapt their gait to one or more of the aforementioned constraints. Thus, the ability to exhibit adaptive gait is a desirable characteristic in order to avoid negative outcomes.
Locomotor adaptability has been demonstrated to be closely tied to the variability of stride-to-stride intervals [10], [11]. Traditionally, variability of locomotor behavior has been measured through summary metrics (e.g., standard deviation and coefficient of variation) that index the magnitude of variability in the behavior of the system. However, twenty years ago, researchers first began to demonstrate that a pathological system may have the same magnitude of variability as a healthy system, while the structure of variability differed [12]. This observation led to the postulate that the structure of variability in a system’s behavior may reflect the system’s inherent flexibility; that is, the system’s ability to exhibit adaptive, functional behavior [9], [10], [11], [13], [14]. More specifically, the rhythmic variability inherent to these systems also exhibited fractal scaling (i.e., patterns of variability at one time scale are similar to those found at other time scales). Thus, more recently, metrics that index the structure of variability have gained favor in the literature because of their ability to quantify the dynamic, time-evolving nature of the locomotor system’s rhythmic behavior.
One way that the variability of these locomotor rhythms has been quantified is through a technique called detrended fluctuation analysis (DFA). DFA was developed to quantify long-range correlations as a means to index repeating patterns at different time scales [15]. The alpha (α) value derived from DFA describes the strength of the long-range correlations and typically ranges from 0.5 (no long-range correlations or randomness) to 1.0 (strong long-range correlations or persistence). Hausdorff and colleagues used DFA to show that persistence is observed in the stride-to-stride intervals of young healthy adults and a shift toward randomness is observed when the agent is constrained by pathology or natural aging [16], [17], [18], [19]. This finding has been extended to show that a shift toward a more random gait pattern is observed when a constraint is imposed on the person, task or environment [20], [21], [22], [23], [24], and may partially account for an increased rate of falls in many populations exhibiting this behavior [10], [25].
One way to enhance current clinical practice is to incorporate gait variability training. Specifically, the development of new interventions to change gait variability patterns would be a unique way to potentially restore functional gait behavior [26]. Our previous work has shown that fractal patterns in gait can be altered when participants synchronize their stride-to-stride intervals to a visual metronome (flashing square on a screen) while they walk on a treadmill [27]. The intervals between flashes of the visual metronome were not consistent; rather, they exhibited a variety of fractal patterns. Thus, by altering the fractal patterns of the visual stimulus and requiring the participant to synchronize their heel strike with the stimulus, our results indicated that the fractal structure in stride-to-stride intervals could be shifted toward increased persistence or randomness. The findings of our work are supported by similar results when a fractal auditory stimulus is used [20], [28], [29], [30], and all of these studies present a similar theme; fractal gait patterns can be altered when synchronizing gait to a fractal stimulus. The next logical question, then, is what happens to the gait patterns when the stimulus is removed? Do the new fractal gait patterns remain or do they return to baseline levels? Hove et al. examined the carry-over effects in Parkinson’s patients after three minutes of gait synchronization to a fractal auditory stimulus, but the retention trial only lasted three minutes [20]. Uchitomi et al. examined the retention of gait patterns in Parkinson’s patients across four days, but also only examined three minute gait trials [30]. Longer retention tests and the identification of factors that influence retention are necessary to develop protocols that may enhance locomotor rehabilitation.
The purpose of this study was two-fold. The first experiment was designed to test whether fractal gait patterns are retained for up to 15 minutes after entraining gait to a fractal stimulus. Entrainment in this study refers to synchronizing gait patterns to a stimulus. It was hypothesized that the gait patterns after the entrainment phase would be similar to those observed during entrainment. In the second experiment, we tested the influence of a continuous (i.e., visual information for synchronization was available nearly the entire time) versus a discrete (i.e., visual information for synchronization was available only at heel strike) fractal stimulus on fractal gait patterns during the synchronization and post-synchronization (i.e., retention) phases. In this experiment, we hypothesized that the continuous stimulus would lead to more a persistent gait pattern in the synchronization phase. It was also predicted that individuals would exhibit fractal gait patterns more similar to the stimulus pattern in the post-synchronization phase when the continuous stimulus was employed. A brief outline of each experiment and the respective methods follows.
Experiment 1 – Determining whether Fractal Gait Patterns Are Retained after Entrainment
This experiment was designed to replicate and expand our previous work using a visual stimulus exhibiting fractal timing patterns as a mechanism for individuals to develop a desired change in fractal timing patterns of gait [27]. This was accomplished by instructing the participants to entrain their gait cycle to the visual stimulus. Our previous work showed that fractal gait patterns in young, healthy adults could be moved toward more random (i.e., toward DFA α = 0.5) or persistent (i.e., toward DFA α = 1.0) patterns when synchronizing their gait cycle to a visual stimulus exhibiting random or persistent patterns, respectively. The logical progression of this work is to determine if those patterns are retained after healthy adults train with a fractal stimulus. We note that the healthy participants in this study were presumed to exhibit adaptive, functional behavior. Thus, requiring them to shift from their baseline behavior (DFA α = 0.75) toward a more persistent behavior (DFA α = 1.0) could be interpreted as shifting a healthy system into a maladaptive system. This is congruent with perspective that interprets any change in behavior (i.e., an increase or a decrease in DFA α) as a shift toward a maladaptive system [10], [31]. However, most clinical populations exhibit a shift toward a more random gait pattern (DFA α = 0.5), so Experiment 1 was designed to be a proof-of-concept study to determine whether more persistent behavior would be adopted when entraining to a fractal stimulus, regardless of the starting point of each participants’ baseline behavior.
Materials and Methods
Participants
Twelve young healthy adults (7 females and 5 males, age: 23.5±4.5 yrs; height: 1.67±0.09 m; mass: 64.4±8.9 kg) participated. All participants were screened for any neurological conditions or structural injuries that would affect their gait.
Ethics Statement
The University of North Carolina at Greensboro institutional review board approved all procedures, and all participants signed an informed consent form prior to participation.
Procedure
Participants walked at a self-selected walking speed (M = 1.08±0.03 m/s) on a treadmill for a total of 45 minutes continuously, which included three 15 minute phases. In the first 15 minutes (pre-synchronization phase), participants walked at their preferred speed, which served as a baseline. In the next 15 minutes (synchronization phase), the participants synchronized their gait cycle to a visual metronome that exhibited persistence (DFA α = 0.98). As in our previous work [27], the visual metronome consisted of a red flashing square that was projected in front of the treadmill and participants were asked to synchronize to the metronome by being at right heel contact when the red square flashed. The average interval between red square flashes was 1.00±0.07 sec. In the last 15 minutes (post-synchronization phase), the metronome was taken away and the participants were asked to walk naturally, just as they did in the pre-synchronization phase. They were not told to attempt to reproduce the gait timing patterns from the synchronization phase, as our goal was to determine what behavior naturally emerged after entrainment to the fractal stimulus.
Twelve reflective markers were attached to the participant and affixed bilaterally on the lower limbs at the mid-thigh, knee, mid-shank, ankle, heel, and toe. Gait kinematics were captured via a Qualisys 3D Motion Capture system at 200 Hz (Qualisys, Gothenburg, Sweden). Even though subjects were asked to synchronize their right heel strike to the visual metronome, we found no difference between legs in our previous work [27], so only the right leg was used in the current analysis. The knee angle in the sagittal plane was then calculated with customized Matlab routines at each time point (1/200th sec) (Mathworks, Natick, MA). Next, the time interval between each peak knee flexion was calculated using a custom Matlab algorithm, creating a stride-to-stride interval time series. Each 45 minute time series was separated into three phases of 15 minute time series within a complete trial: (1) pre-synchronization, (2) synchronization, and (3) post-synchronization. The dynamics of each stride-to-stride interval time series within each phase was analyzed using DFA to index baseline gait dynamics before the metronome (pre-synchronization phase), the degree to which gait dynamics were altered when walking to the metronome (synchronization phase), and the residual effect of the altered gait dynamics when the metronome was removed (post-synchronization phase).
The details of DFA have been outlined elsewhere [15], [32] and in our previous work [27]. Briefly, the time series is first integrated and then divided in boxes (i.e., time durations) of equal size. Next, the data within each box is detrended by applying a line of best fit to the data and determining the deviation of each data point from the line. The average deviation about the line within each box is calculated throughout the time series and then repeated for a variety of box sizes (n = 4 to n = 1/4 × number of data points). A log-log plot is then created by plotting the log of the box size n on the x-axis and the average deviation within each box size on the y-axis. Lastly, a line of best fit is applied to the plot and the slope of the line (α) corresponds to the strength of the long-range correlation. Typical DFA α values for stride-to-stride intervals in gait hover around 0.75. DFA α near 0.5 indicates a more random pattern, whereas values near 1.0 are tending toward persistence.
Statistics
All statistics calculated with the IBM SPSS Statistics Package (version 18, IBM Corporation, New York). Summary statistics (mean and standard deviation) and the fractal structure (DFA α) of the stride-to-stride intervals were examined for each phase. Tests of normality (skewness, kurtosis, and Kolmogorov-Smirnov) indicated all dependent variables were normally distributed. A separate repeated measures analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to examine each dependent variable (p≤.05). Follow-up Bonferroni corrected t-tests were used when appropriate.
Results
Summary statistics
An example of the stride-to-stride interval time series for the 45 minute trial encompassing the three phases is in . The middle 15 minutes is expanded in to provide a comparison of the prescribed fractal pattern (metronome intervals) and the corresponding gait behavior (stride intervals) during the synchronization phase. A main effect of phase was observed for the mean, F(2,22) = 74.8, p<.001, partial η2 = .87, and standard deviation, F(2,22) = 97.4, p<.001, partial η2 = .90, of the stride-to-stride intervals. Follow-up tests indicated that the mean and standard deviation in the pre-synchronization and post-synchronization phases were not different, but the synchronization phase had a significantly lower mean and higher standard deviation in the synchronization phase (p<.001; ).
Time series of the stimulus and stride intervals in Experiment 1.
The fractal time series used to drive the metronome (A) and one participant’s stride interval time series before, during, and after synchronizing with the metronome (B). The mean, standard deviation, and DFA α for each phase is presented. DFA α increased the synchronization phase and remained elevated during the post-synchronization phase.
Synchronization phase time series for the metronome and stride intervals in Experiment 1.
The fractal pattern of the metronome time series that prescribed the gait patterns is depicted in blue and the actual stride interval time series during the synchronization phase is depicted in red. Although the stride interval time series had greater variability magnitude, similar underlying structure is observed in both time series.
Mean, standard deviation, and DFA α of the stride interval time series in Experiment 1.
A significant decrease in mean (A) and increase in standard deviation (B) was observed during the synchronization phase. The dashed gray line indicates the mean (1.00 sec) and standard deviation (0.07 sec) of the fractal stimulus that was used during the synchronization phase. Error bars represent standard error. Asterisks indicate the sync phase was significantly different relative to the pre- and post-sync phases for mean and standard deviation. A significant increase in DFA α (C) was observed in the synchronization phase, which was retained in the post-synchronization phase. Follow-up analyses showed that the post-synchronization elevated values were not only due to immediate retention. Rather, all three 5 minute epochs in the post-synchronization phase exhibited an elevated DFA α value. The dashed gray line indicates the DFA α value (0.98) of the fractal stimulus that was used during the synchronization phase. Asterisks indicate the sync and post-sync phases were significantly elevated relative to the pre-sync phase, and that the post-sync 1–5, 6–10, and 11–15 phases were not different from each other.
Fractal structure
A main effect of phase was observed for DFA α, F(2,22) = 10.5, p = .001, partial η2 = .49, and follow-up tests indicated that DFA α significantly increased when comparing the pre-synchronization phase (0.72±0.09) to the synchronization phase (0.86±0.07; p<.001). DFA α remained high during the post-synchronization phase (0.83±0.12), and was not significantly different from the synchronization phase (p = .380). However, DFA α was significantly higher in the post-synchronization phase compared to the pre-synchronization phase (p<.001; ). To determine if the DFA α values during the post-synchronization phase were driven by the initial stride-to-stride interval dynamics in the phase, the 15 minute time series was further separated into three 5 minute, non-overlapping time series. These shortened time series are similar to the duration of the retention time series examined by Hove et al. [20] and Uchitomi et al. [30], which allowed for a more direct comparison between studies. However, those studies only examined retention for 3 minutes following the gait training, whereas our study extended the retention phase to 15 minutes, allowing for three 5 minute non-overlapping time series to be examined. We elected not to shorten the time series to less than 5 minutes, as the patterns indexed by DFA may be inaccurately identified in short time series. No difference in DFA α was observed between the 5 minute intervals, F(2,22) = 1.27, p = .301, partial η2 = .10, indicating that similar fractal structure in the gait dynamics was observed throughout the 15 minute post-synchronization (i.e., retention) phase ().
Experiment 2 – Continuous versus Discrete Fractal Stimuli: Determining Which Method Is Better for Fractal Gait Retention
Experiment 1 demonstrated that fractal gait patterns are retained after synchronizing to a fractal visual stimulus. However, the results from our previous work [27] and Experiment 1 indicate that participants are not able to fully match the fractal characteristics of the visual stimulus. In both experiments, participants were instructed to synchronize their gait to a fractal visual stimulus exhibiting a variability pattern of DFA α = 0.98. In both cases, participants were not able to fully produce the fractal pattern exhibited by the stimulus, but did increase the persistence in their gait patterns during the synchronization phase (DFA α = 0.87±0.06 in [27] and 0.86±0.07 in Experiment 1 of the current study). The same discrete stimulus (flashing red square) was used in both experiments to prescribe the desired gait patterns, and in the absence of continuous visual information, the task required a level of anticipation of when the next square will flash in order to match up the right heel strike to the visual display. Previous work has shown that synchronization performance increases when a continuous stimulus is used compared to a discrete stimulus [33]. Thus, Experiment 2 was designed to investigate if gait patterns could be more precisely shifted when using a continuous fractal stimulus compared to a discrete fractal stimulus during the synchronization phase and if those more persistent patterns were retained in the post-synchronization phase.
Materials and Methods
Participants
Fifteen young healthy adults (7 females and 8 males, age: 24.7±5.2 yrs; height: 1.77±0.10 m; mass: 75.5±11.5 kg) participated, none of whom participated in Experiment 1. All participants were screened for any neurological conditions or structural injuries that would affect their gait.
Ethics Statement
The University of North Carolina at Greensboro institutional review board approved all procedures, and all participants signed an informed consent form prior to participation.
Procedure
Participants attended two data collection sessions over two separate days. Similar to Experiment 1, participants walked for an extended period of time that was separated into three phases. The total time of the two daily sessions in Experiment 2 was shortened to 30 minutes. This led to three 10 minute phases, which still allowed for approximately 500 strides within each phase. In both sessions, participants walked at a self-selected walking speed (0.93±0.09 m/s) on a treadmill for a total of 30 minutes continuously. For the first 10 minutes, participants walked at their preferred speed, and this served as a baseline trial (pre-synchronization phase). During the next 10 minutes, the participants synchronized to a visual stimulus that exhibited persistence in the inter-beat intervals (DFA α = 0.98, synchronization phase). For the last 10 minutes, the visual stimulus was removed and the participants were told to continue walking (post-synchronization phase). Just as in Experiment 1, the participants were told to walk naturally after the stimulus was removed (i.e., they were not told to attempt to reproduce the fractal patterns from the synchronization phase).
A different visual stimulus was presented in each day and the order was counterbalanced between participants. On one test day, a discrete visual stimulus was presented, and on the other, a continuous visual stimulus was presented. Both stimuli were presented in a virtual environment on a screen in front of the treadmill, and consisted of a black sky, horizon line, and textured ground plane with identical optic flow rates (i.e., the rate of the ground plane moving toward the participants) of 1 m/s (). The optic flow rate was set at a constant rate of 1 m/s between participants, even though the participants were allowed to self-select their walking speed. The 1 m/s optic flow rate was selected because it was near the average self-selected walking speed from Experiment 1. The discrete stimulus included two virtual footprints that alternately flashed for 200 ms at eye-height in the virtual environment (), whereas the continuous stimulus included two virtual footprints that continuously slid along the ground plane in an alternating fashion (). In the continuous stimulus, each virtual footprint started by appearing approximately 2 m in the foreground and then slid back toward the participant. Once the virtual footprint reached the edge of the screen, it reappeared in its original position and continued the sliding cycle. The virtual footprint did not include a flight phase. Thus, the sliding footprints provided near continuous information about the timing leading up to the event (appearance of the virtual footprint which prompted heel contact of the corresponding limb) by being visible throughout the majority of the gait cycle, while the discrete stimulus did not. In both stimulus types, the time between appearances of the right virtual footprint was prescribed by a fractal time series and the left virtual footprint appeared halfway through the prescribed time interval. Participants were instructed to be at right heel strike when the right virtual footprint appeared in the foreground and vice versa. The same fractal time series was used to control both stimuli, which exhibited persistence (DFA α = 0.98) and contained 500 data points that were bounded within 1.00–1.35 sec (mean 1.17±0.07 sec). The mean time in the stimuli time series in Experiment 2 was increased to more closely match the baseline stride-to-stride interval time observed in our participants from Experiment 1. However, the same structure and magnitude of variability in the stimuli time series was used for both experiments.
Schematic of the experimental setup in Experiment 2.
While treadmill walking at a self-selected speed, the participants synchronized their heel-strike of each limb with the appearance of a corresponding virtual footprint in the virtual environment that was projected on a screen (A) that consisted of either a discrete (B) or continuous virtual stimulus (C). Both virtual environments contained a moving ground plane, providing optic flow of the environment that closely mimicked the treadmill speed.
Identical to Experiment 1, 12 reflective markers were affixed on the lower limbs and 3D motion capture data was collected at 200 Hz (Qualisys, Gothenburg, Sweden). Markers were placed bilaterally at the mid-thigh, knee, mid-shank, ankle, heel, and toe. The sagittal knee angle was calculated from the mid-thigh, knee, and mid-shank reflectors and the stride-to-stride intervals were calculated by determining the time between peak knee flexions in each stride using a custom algorithm created in Matlab (Mathworks, Inc., Natick, MA). The stride-to-stride interval time series were separated into three phases within each stimulus type: (1) pre-synchronization, (2) synchronization, and (3) post-synchronization. Each phase of the stride-to-stride interval time series was submitted to DFA to index the presence and strength of the fractal patterns.
Statistics
All statistics calculated with the IBM SPSS Statistics Package (version 18, IBM Corporation, New York). Summary statistics (mean and standard deviation) and the fractal structure (DFA α) of the stride-to-stride intervals were examined. As in Experiment 1, only data from the right limb were analyzed because no difference between limbs was observed in our previous research [27] . Tests of normality (skewness, kurtosis, and Kolmogorov-Smirnov) indicated all dependent variables were normally distributed. Separate 2 × 3 (stimulus type × phase) repeated measures ANOVA were used to examine each dependent variable (p≤.05). Follow-up Bonferroni corrected t-tests were used when appropriate.
Results
Summary statistics
A main effect of phase was observed for the mean, F(2,28) = 25.9, p<.001, partial η2 = .65, and standard deviation, F(2,28) = 88.1, p<.001, partial η2 = .86), of the stride-to-stride intervals. Follow-up tests indicated that the mean and standard deviation in the pre-synchronization and post-synchronization phases were not different, but the synchronization phase had a significantly lower mean and higher standard deviation in both stimulus types (p<.001; ). There were no significant differences for stimulus type mean (p = .699) and standard deviation (p = .466), or for the phase × stimulus type interaction for mean (p = .491) and standard deviation (p = .451).
Mean, standard deviation, and DFA α of the stride interval time series in Experiment 2.
A significant decrease in mean (A) and increase in standard deviation (B) was observed during the synchronization phase with both the discrete and continuous stimuli. The dashed gray line indicates the mean (1.17 sec) and standard deviation (0.07 sec) of the fractal stimulus that was used during the synchronization phase. Error bars represent standard error. Asterisks indicate the sync phase was significantly different relative to the pre- and post-sync phases. A significant increase in DFA α (C) was observed in the synchronization phase for both stimuli. However, only the discrete stimulus (black bars) led to the retention of the trained fractal structure, while the continuous stimulus (gray bars) did not lead to retention. The dashed gray line indicates the DFA α value (0.98) of the fractal stimulus that was used during the synchronization phase. Asterisks indicate the sync and post-sync phases were different than the pre-sync phase with the discrete stimulus, but only the sync phase was elevated with the continuous stimulus.
Fractal structure
The fractal structure of the time series prescribing the appearance of the right virtual footprint in both stimuli, along with the stride-to-stride intervals of the right limb for one participant in the pre-synchronization, synchronization, and post-synchronization phases in each stimulus type are shown in . A significant main effect of phase was observed for DFA α of the stride-to-stride intervals, F(2,28) = 16.8, p<.001, partial η2 = .55. Follow-up tests indicated that DFA α increased in the synchronization phase in both stimulus types (p<.002). Importantly, in the post-synchronization phase DFA α remained elevated in the discrete stimulus (p = .009) compared to the pre-synchronization phase, but returned to the pre-synchronization level in the continuous stimulus (p = .228; ). The stimulus type main effect (p = .406) and phase × stimulus type interaction (p = .296) were not significant.
Time series of the stimulus and stride intervals in Experiment 2.
The fractal time series used to drive both stimuli (A) and one participant’s stride interval time series before, during, and after synchronizing with the discrete stimulus (B) and the continuous stimulus (C). DFA α increased in the synchronization phase with both stimuli, but only remained elevated in the post-synchronization phase when the discrete stimulus was employed.
Discussion
These experiments replicated previous findings showing that fractal gait patterns shift in a predictable direction when participants synchronize their gait cycle to a fractal stimulus [20], [27], [28], [29], [30]. The purpose of the current experiment was two-fold: (1) to determine if the new fractal gait patterns are retained after the fractal stimulus is removed and (2) to determine if the manner in which the fractal intervals were presented (discrete or continuous stimulus) affect the strength and retention of the fractal gait patterns. Experiment 1 showed that fractal gait patterns are retained up to 15 minutes after the stimulus was removed, supporting our first hypothesis. Our second experiment showed that both a continuous and discrete fractal stimulus could lead to more persistent gait patterns, but the adopted fractal patterns were only retained when the discrete stimulus was used. These results only partially supported our second hypothesis.
Visual or auditory stimulus synchronization is a relatively common method to study the neuromotor properties of timing [34], [35], [36], [37], [38], [39]. However, in all of those studies the stimulus that primed the timing behavior (typically finger tapping or circle drawing) exhibited a constant interval between beats. Given that fractal behavior emerges once the stimulus is removed [40], [41], [42], a stimulus that incorporates fractal patterns may be more useful in the examination of the neuromotor properties of timing. To that end, researchers have begun employing fractal stimuli to discover how timing emerges in a variety of tasks and to examine the flexibility of timing control [20], [27], [28], [30], [43], [44]. A concept supporting much of this research is that of strong anticipation, which suggests that fractal behavior emerges from the individual’s perception of the fractal properties of the stimulus [45], [46], [47]. Thus, the desired fractal behavior of the participant can be manipulated in specific ways, so long as the task requirements are attainable. For example, participants were able to produce a variety of fractal patterns in their finger tap intervals when the fractal properties of a visual stimulus were manipulated [44]. This finding was extended to the timing in stride-to-stride intervals in our previous work, and indicated that a fractal visual stimulus could be used to shift fractal gait patterns toward persistence or randomness [27]. Since natural aging and pathology can shift fractal gait patterns toward randomness, we focused on developing and retaining persistence in Experiment 1 and provided evidence that persistent fractal gait patterns are retained for up to 15 minutes after stimulus removal. Further, we showed that the fractal patterns are not being driven by the immediate locomotor behavior following stimulus removal (minutes 1–5). This expands the work by Hove et al. [20] and Uchitomi et al. [30], which showed that Parkinson’s patients who adopted fractal gait patterns from a fractal auditory stimulus retain the patterns for three minutes. The findings of Experiment 1 in the current study and from earlier work [20], [30] suggest that the production of fractal gait patterns is not merely a consequence of synchronizing to a fractal metronome. Rather, a reorganization of the neuromotor coordination pattern may be occurring, allowing for the retention of the fractal gait patterns after the stimulus is taken away. Future work in this area should focus on the frequency, intensity, and duration needed to expand the retention effect across multiple days and weeks.
The metronome time series had a smaller mean and larger standard deviation than was exhibited in the participants’ baseline gait behavior in both experiments. This required the participants to exhibit faster and more variable strides during the synchronization phase to ensure that they expended effort during task performance. The stride interval mean and standard deviation of participants closely mimicked the mean and standard deviation of the metronome, indicating that the participants were able to synchronize their gait cycle to comply with both the magnitude (mean and standard deviation) and structure (DFA α) of the variably timed metronome. These results are congruent with recent research by Marmelat et al. showing that participants are able to entrain their gait dynamics to a stimulus when the magnitude or structure of variability of a fractal auditory metronome are manipulated [29].
In both our previous work [27] and in Experiment 1 of our current study, the fractal properties of the stride-to-stride intervals fell short of the fractal properties prescribed by the stimulus; a finding incongruent with earlier research that examined fractal timing properties in finger tapping [44]. This could be due to a number of factors: (1) the increased complexity of controlling gait compared to finger tapping (i.e., increased degrees of freedom to control), (2) mechanical factors, such as increased lower limb inertia relative to the inertia of a finger, (3) spatial constraints imposed while walking on a treadmill or (4) difficulty perceiving fractal timing properties from a discrete stimulus. To examine the last potential factor and determine if fractal gait patterns could be more precisely shifted in a desired direction, we elected to investigate whether a continuous visual stimulus influenced the corresponding gait behavior in Experiment 2 of the current study.
Previous work that examined the nature of visual and auditory stimuli to facilitate synchronization suggests that a stimulus containing continuous information preceding the event leads to enhanced synchronization compared to a stimulus that only provides discrete information (i.e., the event only) [33]. In our previous study [27] and in Experiment 1 of the current study, the fractal visual stimulus only provided discrete information that indicated when the participant was to be at heel contact. This information was presented with a visual stimulus that flashed at various time intervals on a screen in front of a treadmill while the participant was walking. This method did not provide the participant with any visual information about when the flash was going to occur. Given the difficulty of synchronizing to a fractal metronome while treadmill walking, it is not surprising that participants’ fractal gait patterns fell short of the prescribed behavior from the visual stimulus when presented discretely. Since visuomotor synchronization has been shown to increase with a continuous stimulus [33], we modified our visual stimulus so that near continuous visual information about the fractal timing between events was available in Experiment 2. This was done via two virtual footprints (one for each leg) that alternately slid along the ground plane until they reached the end of the screen. At that point, the footprint would reappear in the foreground and then slide backward again. Thus, participants were provided with visual information throughout most of the stride that corresponded to different phases of their gait cycle to ensure that participants were at heel contact at the specified time. No difference between stimulus type was observed in the synchronization phase in Experiment 2, and this indicated that the continuous visual stimulus did not enhance the strength of the fractal gait patterns compared to the discrete visual stimulus. It is plausible that the lack of a flight phase in the sliding footprints broke up the continuity of the continuous stimulus, thereby leading to gait behavior consistent with discrete stimulus entrainment. The fractal patterns in the synchronization phase in both stimulus types were nearly identical to our previous study [27], and also to Experiment 1 in the current study. Furthermore, the developed fractal gait patterns were retained with the discrete stimulus, replicating the results from Experiment 1. However, retention was not observed with the continuous stimulus. This is particularly interesting because the magnitude of variability (i.e., standard deviation) was not different in the post-synchronization phases in the two stimulus types, but the structure of variability was, potentially highlighting a reorganization of locomotor control.
The difference in retention of fractal behavior in the two stimulus types may have been due to the attention required to complete the task during the synchronization phase. Since the discrete stimulus offered only information about the event, it is plausible that participants may have more actively attended to the overall timing structure between the events. With the continuous stimulus, visual information was available throughout most of the stride, thereby off-loading the cognitive demand to the task and potentially requiring less attention from the participant. Since fractal gait patterns were shifted toward persistence in both stimulus types in the synchronization phase, but only retained with the discrete stimulus, it is plausible that different strategies were used in each of the stimulus types. Even though synchronizing to both visual stimuli led to altered fractal behavior, the discrete visual stimulus may have provided information that was conducive for the reorganization of locomotor control.
An equally plausible case for these divergent findings could be made based on the idea of constraints. The discrete stimulus dictated heel strike times but allowed the participant to freely vary their movements in an individualized way so that there were myriad movement patterns that led to heel synchronization. Conversely, the continuous stimulus more rigidly defined the gait timing and, thus, forced each participant into a more constrained movement pattern throughout the gait cycle. Constraining gait in this way may not allow the locomotor system to search for and converge on a preferred organization for task completion. Instead, the system may have been forced into an organization that, while adequate for task completion, was not as robust and therefore did not persist once the stimulus was removed. Future studies should examine this question in more detail given its potential implications for the rehabilitation of patients with locomotor deficits. Measures of coordination between limbs that allow for the identification of attractor states (i.e., stable solutions of gait dynamics) could be useful in this pursuit. Such measures would allow for the characterization of different organization patterns, and the stability of such patterns, in the context of a synchronization task such as this.
Conclusions
The concept of developing specific patterns of variability in gait is gaining favor in the literature because of its potential to positively enhance gait functionality [20], [27], [28], [29], [30]. The current experiments examined whether more persistent gait patterns are retained after entrainment and also whether a continuous or discrete stimulus was more appropriate for adopting and retaining fractal gait patterns. The data indicated that fractal patterns are indeed retained up to 15 minutes after stimulus removal. Our results also demonstrated that both a discrete and continuous stimulus are viable tools to alter fractal patterns in gait during synchronization. However, retention of the fractal gait patterns was only observed following the discrete stimulus. This information, in conjunction with previous findings in this domain [26], has begun to lay the foundation for the use of fractal stimuli to alter specific fractal behavior for the restoration of adaptive, functional movement patterns during locomotion.
Funding Statement
Manuscript preparation was funded the United States Navy (W91CRB-11-D-0001; subcontract P010202825). The funder had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript.
Data Availability
The authors confirm that all data underlying the findings are fully available without restriction. All relevant data are within the paper.
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6 Best Ice Boots for Horses Reviews- Protect Your Horse’s Gait
Horses are put through tremendous stress, even under the best of care. The soft tissues in their lower legs can experience a high degree of pressure from riding day in and day out. While there are many schools of thought on how best to address this issue, the best ice boots for horses are one of the best ways and are recommended by many equestrian veterinarians. With this guide, we will discuss the importance of using ice boots on your horses. We will also review the top six brands and talk about their differences, so you are equipped to make the right choice for your horse.
In a hurry? This is our Winner!
Our Top Pick
9.4/10 Our Score
Tough 1 Ice Boot
- Lightweight and comfortable material
- Each boot offers four straps
- Available in three colors
- Stays soft, even when frozen
Why Do You Need Ice Boots for Horses?
As mentioned in our opening remarks, performance horses take on a lot of stress as beasts of burden. For this reason, many horse owners choose to ice their horses’ legs down to prevent swelling and discomfort after a workout.
In the past, it was somewhat tricky to ice a horse’s legs because of their size. Today, horse experts have created the best-rated ice boots for horses, allowing horse owners to ensure their horses receive the care they need, resulting in less pain and discomfort.
There are many benefits to horse ice boots, including the following:
- Ice boots help to reduce swelling, which can make a horse’s gait off balance.
- These boots help with discomfort after exercise.
- They help to protect integral tendons and ligaments.
- Ice boots help to increase the healing of soft tissues.
Types of Horse Ice Boots
There are a handful of different types of ice boots available. The main reason for using ice boots is to cool your horse’s legs down as quickly as possible. Although many horse owners will simply stand their horses in a vat of ice water, using ice boots is a much safer and easier method of providing relief to your horse’s tired legs. Ice boots are simply more convenient and should primarily be used if you have more than one horse.
There are a host of brands on the market, but all feature one of two likely types. The gel-filled models require you to freeze the entire wrap before application. Although these are convenient, they may not work for horse owners who do not have access to a large freezer.
The other primary type of best horse ice boots is the type where the owner uses the boot to place ice packs inside. This is one of the most commonly used types of horse boots. The type you choose will depend on the convenience you desire and your access to freezer capabilities.
Ice Boots For Horses Comparing
Top 6 Ice Boots for Horses – Reviews for 2021
When we decided to conduct our horse ice boots reviews, we wanted to make sure we tried them all. We went through dozens of models and have decided on our top six picks, which was not an easy task to complete.
#1. Tough 1 Cooling Ice Boot
The Tough 1 Cooling Ice Boot is made of a gel-like material ideal for cooling and storing. This brilliant design maintains the softness of the wraps no matter how long they are in the freezer, allowing them to quickly and perfectly wrap around your horse’s legs for optimum comfort.
For extended usage, these ice boots are made of a comfortable and durable nylon shell material. These boots include four straps that quickly attach and grip, allowing you to modify the compression you desire on the leg for the ideal user experience, making it a fantastic alternative for ice therapy. You can quickly treat your horse’s arthritic joints, tendons, soft tissues, and ligaments thanks to its ease of use and administration.
With dimensions of 18 x 8 x 6 inches and a weight of 2.35 lbs, these ice boots are a fantastic lightweight choice for your horse instead of becoming a troublesome and painful weight on their legs. You can find these boots in black, crimson, and navy blue colors.
Highlighted Features:
- Comfortable and lightweight design
- Four adjustable quick-gripping straps
- Maintains softness even when frozen
- Several color options to choose from
Pros
- Allows adjustability of straps for desired compression level
- Size and design can conform to most horses
- Easy to use and apply
- Convenient cooling in the freezer
Cons
- It comes in one size only
#2. Professional’s Choice Horse Ice Boot
This ice boot for horses is also a gel-type boot, and it comes with two in the pack. These ice boots are made with a durable neoprene material that resists tears and dirt buildup. These boots also promise to be safer for ice therapy on horses because they protect the horses from coming into direct contact with the gel ice packs, which can cause discomfort and soft tissue damage.
These ice boots are available in two sizes: large and standard. They are available in black and crimson. The four extended hook and loop straps allow you to fully customize the fit and ensure the correct level of compression is being administered at all times.
The neoprene outer material is impressive, allowing for tough performance that can hold up to a lot of abuse. These ice boots are lined with protective nylon material, ensuring your horse’s legs do not become uncomfortable while being exposed to the ice therapy.
The dimensions of each ice boot are 13 x 9 x 4 inches, and each one weighs around 2.1 pounds, making them lightweight enough to provide therapeutic benefits for your horses without weighing down their legs and causing discomfort.
If you have access to a freezer, gel-type ice boots are best because they are so convenient. These seemed to offer a high level of comfort and cooled our horses’ legs down quickly and easily.
Highlighted Features:
- Four comfort straps
- Made of durable neoprene fabric
- Easy to use
- Adjustable
- Offers two boots
Pros
- Offers a convenient carry bag
- Provides extended comfort
- Molds to the horse’s legs
- Convenient
Cons
- May not fit smaller horses
#3. Professional’s Choice Nine Pocket Ice Boot
Professional’s Choice offers pocket-style ice boots with a cooling system that requires gel packs, ice packs, or bags. This kind is ideal for people who don’t have enough freezer space for an ice boot.
With nine inside elastic pockets, you can uniformly distribute the cooling agent in the boot, as recommended by veterinarians for ice therapy. This design helps you treat your horse’s problems by allowing you to target the specific problem areas that your horse has, from above the knee to the pastern. In addition, with its neoprene outer material, you can quickly fill each pocket with ice and keep it cool.
It also features six hook and loop fasteners that ensure a secure grip on the boot, preventing slippage with or without movement, as well as an adjustable fit for your horse. Aside from that, this boot is 23 inches tall and weighs 2.41 pounds, making it highly flexible and user-friendly.
Highlighted Features:
- Designed for a universal fit
- Includes six adjustable straps for varied pressure
- Self-added cooling agents (i.e., ice packs)
- Allows you to focus on target areas of your horse’s foot
Pros
- Simple and convenient use
- Made from durable material
- It holds well and keeps itself in place
Cons
- It is available in only one size
- Still needs ice or gel packs before use
#4. Dura-Tech Full Leg Neoprene Ice Boot for Horses
There are very few horse ice boots that cover the entire leg, but these do, which is why we wanted to include these in our list of reviews. These boots are made of a durable neoprene material that will stand up to the abuse your horse gives it.
These ice boots contain six pockets, and you can use cubed ice or gel packs — whichever you prefer. These ice boots each feature seven 2-inch hook straps that allow for the perfect level of compression for a horse’s painful legs.
Each of these ice boots measures 23 inches tall and provides the perfect level of coverage for standard-sized horses. They are fully guaranteed for six months, offering the ideal level of ice therapy comfort.
We were impressed with how well these ice boots stay in place, even above the knee. If you are looking for a pocket ice boot for horses that remain durable and supportive, these Dura-Tech Full Leg Neoprene boots are right for you. If you have never worked with Neoprene, you are in for a treat. This durable material is super tough and also helps to hold in the coldness, so the boots remain nice and cold for hours.
These boots cool the entire leg and quickly. They are ideal after exercising or for therapy after an injury. Our horses really seemed to feel comfortable with these boots in place and did not seem to mind the slight bulk with the added ice packs. If you want less bulk, it would be wise to purchase the flat gel packs.
Highlighted Features:
- Six straps for a customized fit
- Neoprene exterior
- Durable design
- Comes with two boots
Pros
- Provides full leg coverage
- Comfortable straps
- Easy to fill with ice
- Simple to use
#5. Intrepid International Horse Ice Boot
This is another horse ice boot that offers pockets, allowing you to use gel ice packs or cubed ice bags. It is made with durable and robust Neoprene material, so it is ideal for icing your horse’s legs without causing tissue damage due to harsh ice exposure.
These ice boots offer nine separate pockets for the perfect level of ice exposure. They bring down the temperature of your horse’s legs in a short amount of time. These ice boots can be used on the front or hind legs.
We were impressed that these ice boots really stayed in place, despite the ice bags we added.
They offer six 7-inch tabs that help them to remain in place. These come in one color, which is navy blue. They are only available in one size, and the dimensions are 22 inches tall by 15 inches wide when open.
If you plan on using gel ice packs with this ice boot, you will need to purchase the 4 X 6-inch ones because they will fit precisely inside the pockets. We liked that these boots fit from the fetlock to the hock and were even surprised that they remained cold after an hour.
Highlighted Features:
- Offers nine ice pockets
- Six adjustable straps
- 22 inches tall
- Only offers one boot
Pros
- Treats the leg from fetlock to hock
- Easy to use and adjust
- Comfortable elastic
- Stays in place
Cons
- Available in one size and color
#6. Rural365 Cooling Gel Ice Pack for Horses
These ice boots are constructed of 210 denier polyester, which offers a durable and protective material. This type of ice boot is the gel-type, and it stays in place without causing any discomfort. You can use this wrap for preventive measures or as a treatment for injuries.
The directions for these wraps suggest they only be used for 30 minutes at a time to prevent any soft tissue damage due to too much cold exposure. If you have access to a freezer, these ice boots are going to be ideal for your horses and keeping their legs comfortable after racing.
This wrap freezes in a short amount of time, and it stays frozen for hours. We froze them and then kept them in a cooler in the barn until the exercise period was over. They stayed nice and cold and entirely brought down the temperature of our horse’s legs.
These boots offer four straps that help to keep it in place and provide the perfect level of compression at every point of the leg. They seemed to offer our horses a high level of comfort for the entire thirty minutes of therapy. Now, our horses do not even get upset when we put them on. They seem to want them on.
Featured Highlights:
- Four elastic fasteners hold it securely in place
- Made of durable polyester
- Provides a high level of comfort
- Reusable
Pros
- Freezes quickly and stays cold
- Durable construction
- Easy to put on
- Secures easily
Cons
- Only available in one size and color
Things to Consider Before You Buy an Ice Boot for Horses in 2021
When it comes to purchasing the best ice boots for your horse, there are a few things to keep in mind. Knowing what to search for will help you to identify the best brands so that you can make the right purchase. Consider the following before purchasing any ice boots for horses.
Straps
You must consider the straps before purchasing an ice boot. The ice boot should have multiple straps that help to hold it securely in place. It is wise to buy an ice boot with no fewer than four straps because this will help to ensure it does not slip around on the leg. The more straps, the better you will be able to customize the fit and level of compression.
Materials
Knowing the material the ice boot is constructed from is also essential. Many of the best brands have crafted their ice boots from Neoprene material because it is sturdy and durable and helps protect a horse’s legs from the onslaught of bitter cold, which can sometimes cause discomfort and soft tissue damage.
Fit
The right fit is critical when it comes to treating a horse with ice therapy. If the ice boot does not fit precisely, it is going to slide around and end up causing the horse to trip. A precise fit will allow for compression and ice therapy at the same time. Make sure to carefully measure your horse’s legs to ensure the right fit can be achieved.
FAQs About Horse Ice Boots
We get a lot of questions regarding products for horses and have received quite a lot about ice boots for horses. Because we have received so many questions, we decided to share our top three.
1. Are ice boots safe?
Ice is entirely safe for horses, but ice boots should never be used for more than thirty minutes at a time. Using them too long could cause soft tissue injury.
2. How often should I use ice boots?
You can safely use ice daily. Ice boots are most effective when used after exercise.
3. Can ice boots be used on injuries?
Ice boots can be used for preventative care and after injuries occur. They help with swelling and pain.
Final Words
We have supplied you with all the information you need to find the best ice boots for horses. With ice boots, you can rest assured your horses’ legs will feel comfortable after exercise. Ice boots stop swelling and can help with painful injuries.
Make sure to click through the links and learn as much as possible about each of the best ice boot for horses. If you are a horse owner, make sure to protect your horses with ice boots after each exercise period. They’d do it for you if they could, after all.
DI Men’s Lacrosse Championship History
Year | Champion | Coach | Score | Runner-Up | Host or Site |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
2021 | Virginia (14-4) | Lars Tiffany | 17-16 | Maryland | East Hartford, Conn. |
2020 | Canceled due to Covid-19 | — | — | — | — |
2019 | Virginia (17-3) | Lars Tiffany | 13-9 | Yale | Philadelphia, Pa. |
2018 | Yale (17-3) | Andy Shay | 13-11 | Duke | Foxborough, Mass. |
2017 | Maryland (16-3) | John Tillman | 9-6 | Ohio State | Foxborough, Mass. |
2016 | North Carolina (12-6) | Joe Breschi | 14-13 (ot) | Maryland | Philadelphia |
2015 | Denver (17-2) | Bill Tierney | 10-5 | Maryland | Philadelphia |
2014 | Duke (17-3) | John Danowski | 11-9 | Notre Dame | Baltimore |
2013 | Duke (16-5) | John Danowski | 16-10 | Syracuse | Philadelphia |
2012 | Loyola (Md.) (18-1) | Charley Toomey | 9-3 | Maryland | Foxborough, Mass. |
2011 | Virginia (13-5) | Dom Starsia | 9-7 | Maryland | Baltimore |
2010 | Duke (16-4) | John Danowski | 6-5 (ot) | Notre Dame | Baltimore |
2009 | Syracuse (16-2) | John Desko | 10-9 (ot) | Cornell | Boston |
2008 | Syracuse (16-2) | John Desko | 13-10 | Johns Hopkins | Boston |
2007 | Johns Hopkins (13-4) | Dave Pietramala | 12-11 | Duke | Baltimore |
2006 | Virginia (17-0) | Dom Starsia | 15-7 | Massachusetts | Philadelphia |
2005 | Johns Hopkins (16-0) | Dave Pietramala | 9-8 | Duke | Philadelphia |
2004 | Syracuse (15-2) | John Desko | 14-13 | Navy | Baltimore |
2003 | Virginia (15-2) | Dom Starsia | 9-7 | Johns Hopkins | Baltimore |
2002 | Syracuse (15-2) | John Desko | 13-12 | Princeton | Rutgers |
2001 | Princeton (14-1) | Bill Tierney | 10-9 (ot) | Syracuse | Rutgers |
2000 | Syracuse (15-1) | John Desko | 13-7 | Princeton | Maryland |
1999 | Virginia (13-3) | Dom Starsia | 12-10 | Syracuse | Maryland |
1998 | Princeton (14-1) | Bill Tierney | 15-5 | Maryland | Rutgers |
1997 | Princeton (16-0) | Bill Tierney | 19-7 | Maryland | Maryland |
1996 | Princeton (14-1) | Bill Tierney | 13-12 (ot) | Virginia | Maryland |
1995 | Syracuse (13-2) | Roy Simmons Jr. | 13-9 | Maryland | Maryland |
1994 | Princeton (14-1) | Bill Tierney | 9-8 (ot) | Virginia | Maryland |
1993 | Syracuse (12-2) | Roy Simmons Jr. | 13-12 | North Carolina | Maryland |
1992 | Princeton (13-2) | Bill Tierney | 10-9 (2ot) | Syracuse | Penn |
1991 | North Carolina (16-0) | Dave Klarmann | 18-13 | Towson | Syracuse |
1990 | Syracuse* (13-0) | Roy Simmons Jr. | 21-9 | Loyola Maryland | Rutgers |
1989 | Syracuse (14-1) | Roy Simmons Jr. | 13-12 | Johns Hopkins | Maryland |
1988 | Syracuse (15-0) | Roy Simmons Jr. | 13-8 | Cornell | Syracuse |
1987 | Johns Hopkins (10-3) | Don Zimmerman | 11-10 | Cornell | Rutgers |
1986 | North Carolina (11-3) | Willie Scroggs | 10-9 (ot) | Virginia | Delaware |
1985 | Johns Hopkins (13-1) | Don Zimmerman | 11-4 | Syracuse | Brown |
1984 | Johns Hopkins (14-0) | Don Zimmerman | 13-10 | Syracuse | Delaware |
1983 | Syracuse (14-1) | Roy Simmons Jr. | 17-16 | Johns Hopkins | Rutgers |
1982 | North Carolina (14-0) | Willie Scroggs | 7-5 | Johns Hopkins | Virginia |
1981 | North Carolina (12-0) | Willie Scroggs | 14-13 | Johns Hopkins | Princeton |
1980 | Johns Hopkins (14-1) | Henry Ciccarone | 9-8 (2ot) | Virginia | Cornell |
1979 | Johns Hopkins (13-0) | Henry Ciccarone | 15-9 | Maryland | Maryland |
1978 | Johns Hopkins (13-1) | Henry Ciccarone | 13-8 | Cornell | Rutgers |
1977 | Cornell (13-0) | Richie Moran | 16-8 | Johns Hopkins | Virginia |
1976 | Cornell (16-0) | Richie Moran | 16-13 (ot) | Maryland | Brown |
1975 | Maryland (11-3) | Bud Beardmore | 20-13 | Navy | Johns Hopkins |
1974 | Johns Hopkins (12-2) | Bob Scott | 17-12 | Maryland | Rutgers |
1973 | Maryland (14-1) | Bud Beardmore | 10-9 (2ot) | Johns Hopkins | Penn |
1972 | Virginia (11-4) | Glenn Thiel | 13-12 | Johns Hopkins | Maryland |
1971 | Cornell (13-1) | Richie Moran | 12-6 | Maryland | Hofstra |
*After the 1990 championship, the NCAA Committee on Infractions determined that Paul Gait had played in the 1990 championship while ineligible. Under NCAA rules, Syracuse and Paul Gait’s records for that championship were vacated. The NCAA does not recognize Syracuse and coach Roy Simmons Jr.’s 3-0 record, and Paul Gait’s 7 goals, 7 assists and his participation in that championship.
Gait Lax – Be Legendary –
Gary Gait – Women’s Lacrosse Coach
Orange All-American and lacrosse Hall of Famer Gary Gait has developed the Syracuse program into a perennial challenger for the national championship. Since taking over the helm of the program, Gait has led SU to an overall record of 190-70, two appearances in the national championship game, eight entries in the national semifinals and two trips the NCAA Tournament quarterfinals. In addition, the Orange has claimed six conference regular-season titles and three conference tournament crowns.
Gait is a 10-time NCAA champion, having won three titles as a player for the Orange (1988-90) and seven as an assistant women’s lacrosse coach at the University of Maryland (1995-01).
As a player, Gait enjoyed success at every level. While at Syracuse he helped the Orange to three straight NCAA titles, earned first-team All-America honors three times and received the Player of the Year award twice. Gait’s dominance continued at the professional level as he earned league MVP honors in both the National Lacrosse League and Major League Lacrosse. On the international scene, Gait has been recognized as one of the sport’s best players, earning International Lacrosse Federation (ILF) All-World Team honors.
RETURN TO WHERE IT ALL BEGAN
Gait was named the second head coach in the history of the Syracuse women’s lacrosse program in August 2007. In his first season, Gait led the Orange to new heights. Syracuse won its first outright BIG EAST regular-season crown and successfully defended the tournament title. The Orange earned a program-best fifth seed in the NCAA Championship, where it defeated Towson and North Carolina to advance to the Final Four for the first time in school history.
Syracuse set four NCAA single-season records on its way to a school-record 18 victories. The Orange led the nation in scoring with 541 points and also established new standards for goals (18.01) and points (25.64) per game.
Four student-athletes earned All-America honors, while six were named to the All-Region First Team – both program bests. Syracuse dominated the BIG EAST awards, claiming Attack and Defensive Player of the Year honors and seven all-conference nods. The student-athletes weren’t the only members of the program to earn recognition for the Orange’s success as Gait was voted the IWLCA Regional Coach of the Year.
In 2009, Syracuse shared the BIG EAST regular-season title and advanced to the NCAA quarterfinals for the third consecutive year. Individually, three student-athletes earned All-America status, while five were recognized as All-Region selections. The Orange took home the BIG EAST Attack and Midfield Player of the of the Year awards, and seven players were voted to the all-conference teams.
The Orange returned to the Final Four in 2010 by winning on the road in the first and second rounds. Syracuse became just the second unseeded team to advance to the Final Four since 2005 and finished the season with a record of 15-7. The 15 wins are the second-highest single-season total in school history.
Liz Hogan earned the IWLCA Goalkeeper of the Year award and was one of four student-athletes who earned All-America honors. In addition, five were named to the All-Region team. The Orange claimed two BIG EAST Player of the Year honors for the third consecutive year, while six earned all-conference accolades.
The Orange claimed its fourth BIG EAST regular-season title in five years in 2011, when it posted a league record of 7-1. Gait was named BIG EAST co-Coach of the Year.
In 2012, Gait led Syracuse to the most successful season in program history. The Orange won a school-record 19 games and went undefeated in BIG EAST play for the second time in school history. Syracuse won a program-best 15 consecutive games and climbed as high as No. 2 in the national polls. The Orange advanced to the national semifinals for the third time in five years where it came back from a seven-goal deficit to defeat No. 1 Florida in double overtime. SU’s historic season came to an end in an 8-6 setback against Northwestern in the national championship game.
Michelle Tumolo earned the IWLCA Attacker of the Year award and was a finalist for the Tewaaraton Trophy. She was one four players to earn All-America honors. In addition, five were named to the All-Region Team. Tumolo was also named the BIG EAST Attack Player of the Year and was one of nine student-athlete named to the All-BIG EAST teams. Gait was honored as the BIG EAST and Northest Region Coach of the Year.
Syracuse’s success continued in 2013 when the Orange won the BIG EAST regular-season and tournament titles and advanced to the national semifinals. SU went undefeated in conference play during the regular season for the second consecutive year. Alyssa Murray was a finalist for the Tewaaraton Award, while Becca Block earned the IWLCA Defender of the Year award. The duo earned IWLCA first-team All-America honors, as did freshman Kayla Treanor. Gait was honored as the IWLCA Northeast Region Coach of the Year for the second straight year and the third time in his career.
The 2014 season was a historical one for the Orange. Syracuse was ranked No. 1 for the first time in school history, earning the top spot in back-to-back weeks in April. The Orange made its ACC debut and earned a share of the regular-season title.
Syracuse earned a program-best No. 2 seed in the NCAA Tournament and defeated Stony Brook and Boston College to advance to the national semifinals for the third consecutive year. SU defeated ACC foe Virginia to move on to the title game to face top-ranked Maryland. The Orange fell behind early and its second-half comeback wasn’t enough in a 15-12 loss. The Orange finished the season with a program-best 21 victories.
For the first time in school history, Syracuse had two Tewaaraton Award finalists in Treanor and Murray. Both were IWLCA First Team All-Americans. Treanor, who led the nation in scoring, also earned the IWLCA Attacker of the Year and ACC Offensive Player of the Year awards.
The Orange advanced to the national semifinals for the fourth straight year in 2015. Facing the toughest schedule in the country, Syracuse was ranked in the top 10 all season and recorded four wins against teams ranked in the top five. Syracuse claimed its first ACC Tournament crown by defeating the No. 4, No.3 and No. 2 ranked teams in a span of four days. He was voted by his peers as the ACC Coach of the Year.
Treanor was once again recognized as one of the top top players in the nation. She was a finalist for the Tewaaraton Award as well as the Honda Award and earned IWLCA All-America First Team honors. Treanor also repeated as the ACC Offensive Player of the Year. Halle Majorana joined Treanor on the All-America First Team, while senior Kailah Kempney was a second-team selection.
Syracuse’s success continued in 2016. The Orange once again advanced to the national semifinals, making their fifth straight appearance at championship weekend. Treanor solidifed her position as one of the best to ever play the game, finishing her career in the top six on the NCAA Division I all-time record list list for points and goals. In addition, she became the first four-time IWLCA All-America First Team selection in program history. She was joined the on the All-America Team by Halle Majorana.
SUCCESS ON THE SIDELINES
Gait has coached and recruited some of the greatest players in the history of the women’s game, including NCAA career scoring leader and 2001 Tewaaraton Trophy winner Jen Adams, four-time All-American and 1995 National Defensive Player of the Year and 1996 National Offensive Player of the Year Kelly Amonte, and 2008 national scoring champ and Tewaaraton Trophy finalist Katie Rowan. In all, Gait has mentored 36 All-Americans and nine players who at one time earned national player of the year honors.
Prior to returning to his alma mater, Gait spent two seasons as the head coach of the Colorado Mammoth of the National Lacrosse League (NLL). In his first two campaigns, he led the Mammoth to two playoff appearances and the 2006 league championship. Gait’s professional coaching experience also includes four seasons (2002-05) as player-coach of Major League Lacrosse’s (MLL) Baltimore Bayhawks. He won championships there, as well, taking home MLL titles in 2002 and 2005.
Gait tasted success coaching on the international level when he led Team Canada to the 2007 Men’s World Indoor Championship. Gait’s squad rolled through the tournament, winning all five of its games, including the championship tilt, 15-14, versus the Iroquois. In the summer of 2008, he served as the head coach of the Canadian men’s under-19 team that won the silver medal at the ILF World Championship.
As an assistant at Maryland, Gait helped build one of the most impressive dynasties in NCAA history. The Terps compiled a remarkable 164-16 (.911) overall record in his nine years on the staff, including four undefeated seasons (1995, 1996, 1999, 2001) and seven consecutive NCAA championships (1995-01).
DOMINANCE ON THE FIELD
Gait’s success as a coach might only be surpassed by his accomplishments as a player. He has won every major collegiate, professional and international championship in the sport during his career. In addition to his three NCAA championships with the Orange, Gait has won three NLL titles (1991, 1994-95), three MLL titles (2001-02, 2005), three Mann Cups (1991, 1997, 1999), which are awarded to the senior men’s lacrosse champions of Canada, the Heritage Cup (2004), which goes to the winner of the international box lacrosse tournament every two years, and the International Lacrosse Federation (ILF) World Championship (2006).
DONNING THE ORANGE
A native of Victoria, British Columbia, Gait and his twin brother, Paul, began their playing careers at Syracuse in 1987. There, under the tutelage of SU head coach Roy Simmons Jr., the duo revolutionized lacrosse, bringing a sense of style and excitement to the game that had never been seen before. At no time was that more evident than in the 1988 national semifinal against Penn at the Carrier Dome when Gary unveiled the “Air Gait,” scoring twice by dunking over the top of the goal from behind.
While Gait’s individual theatrics delighted the crowd, Syracuse also excelled as a team with him running the midfield. His Orange squads registered an overall record of 51-5 (.911) from 1987-90, won three national titles, and posted two undefeated seasons (1988, 1990). In 1990, Gait was selected as the NCAA Tournament MVP on what many still call “the greatest lacrosse team ever assembled.”
Individually, he earned All-America honors four times, including three straight first-team nods (1988-90). He also won the Lt. Raymond Enners Award (National Player of the Year) twice (1988, 1990) and the Lt. Donald C. MacLaughlin Jr. Award (Midfielder of the Year) in 1988 and 1990.
Gait still holds the Syracuse career goals scored record (192), which was the NCAA single-season record until 2008. He also owns SU’s single-season goals mark (70), and his nine tallies against Navy in the 1990 NCAA Tournament tied the tournament and school single-game standards.
In conjunction with the 1997 Final Four, the NCAA Lacrosse Committee named Gait, and his brother, Paul, to the 25th Anniversary Lacrosse Team.
JOINING THE PROFESSIONAL RANKS
After his collegiate playing career, Gait took his talents to the professional level, where he played 17 years in the NLL with the Detroit Turbos, Philadelphia Wings, Baltimore Thunder, Pittsburgh CrossFire, Washington Power, and Colorado Mammoth. In 1991 with Detroit, he was named the NLL Rookie of the Year, and later in his career he was selected the league’s MVP a record six times, including five in a row (1995-99). He was also an All-Pro every season.
Gait led the NLL in points and goals seven times and he finished his indoor career as the league’s all-time leading scorer with 1,091 points (since broken) when he retired in 2005. He also won three league championships, leading the Turbos to the title in 1991 and the Wings to consecutive titles in 1994 and 1995. In 2009, Gait came out of retirement after a three-year absence to play for the Rochester Knighthawks for two-plus seasons.
In recognition of his extraordinary NLL career, he was selected as one of five charter members of the league’s Hall of Fame in 2006.
Gait also played five outdoor seasons in Major League Lacrosse. He made his MLL debut with the Long Island Lizards in 2001 before taking over as player-coach of the Bayhawks the following season.
In 2005, Gait led the league in goals, points, and hat tricks. He finished tied in the voting for league MVP and was named the MVP of the championship game after leading the Bayhawks to their second Steinfeld Cup. Gait also won championships with Baltimore in 2002 and the Lizards in 2001. He was named to the MLL 10-year anniversary team in 2010.
Gait’s other playing accomplishments include helping the Victoria Shamrocks to the Mann Cup in 1997 and 1999, winning the 2004 Heritage Cup (Canada), and leading Canada to its first world title since 1978 at the 2006 ILF World Championship in London, Ontario. Playing on the international stage for the final time, Gait saved his best for last, tallying four goals in the ILF title tilt to lead the Canadians to a 15-10 upset of the U.S. squad.
Gait, a 2005 National Lacrosse Hall of Fame inductee, also spends time off the field working to grow the game. He is the president of NDP Lacrosse, a national lacrosse development and education program, and was the chairman of the 2007 Under Armour Boys All-America selection committee.
He and his wife, Nicole, have two children, Taylor, who played for the Orange from 2013-19, and Braedon, who played lacrosse at Princeton.
Syracuse Orange women’s lacrosse: This has been Gary Gait’s best coaching job
Gary Gait has been the head coach of the Syracuse Orange women’s lacrosse team for 14 years now.
In his decade and a half at the helm of the Orange, Gait has accomplished quite a lot. In 2008, he took over a fledgling Syracuse program that had picked up only one NCAA tournament win in its first 10 years of existence, and promptly led them to the Final Four in his first season.
He came out of the gates exactly the way you’d expect from one of the most legendary figures in the history of the sport: Like a man on fire.
He didn’t just lead SU to the Final Four in his first year. He did it in seven of his first nine years. He immediately turned the Orange into a perennial contender worthy of stepping up to the challenge of the heavyweights such as Northwestern and Maryland.
Gait has consistently brought SU right up to the final boss level of the sport, as evidenced by his impressive 20-11 NCAA tournament record and the fact that he’s lead the program to Memorial Day weekend eight times in the 13 chances he’s had to do so.
The problem, of course, is that they have not yet been able to defeat the final boss and hoist the national championship trophy.
But the final boss is difficult to defeat for a reason. The last decade and a half of women’s college lacrosse has been dominated by three programs. In fact, 14 of the last 15 titles have been won by Northwestern (seven), Maryland (five) and North Carolina (two). The only exception since 2005 was James Madison in 2018.
Two of those programs, Northwestern and North Carolina, will once again be in-play this weekend down in Towson. It will be Gait and the Orange’s eighth try to break through the barrier surrounding the sport’s ultimate prize.
Eventually the barrier will be broken, be it on the eighth, ninth or tenth try. Or maybe the eleventh. However many it takes, you have to believe that Gait and his program will get it done at some point.
Whether that year is this year is yet to be seen, but I would argue that it actually doesn’t matter.
This is already Gait’s best coaching job, isn’t it? Reaching the Final Four without arguably his two best players, showing everyone just how talented and deep a roster he and his staff have assembled.
I know I wasn’t the only one who thought the season was essentially over when Megan Carney went down with her ACL injury in the first Boston College game. Surely, that was too much firepower lost. First, Emily Hawryschuk, and now Carney, too? There’s just not enough left to compete with the heavyweights.
And yet, since that terrible moment, the Orange have beaten fellow Final Four team Boston College twice, competed with the best team in the country in the ACC championship game, and put an end to 12 and 15-game winning streaks against Loyola and Florida.
They’ve already proven my initial reaction to Carney’s injury wrong, multiple times over. How much more wrong can they prove me?
It doesn’t really matter, because Gait and his team have already proven their chops with the way they’ve played their entire 2021 season.
One day, the bell will toll for Gary Gait, and he’ll need to answer it by bringing home the first national title in Syracuse women’s lacrosse history.
Whether he can answer it this weekend or not, he won’t be hearing that bell this year.
This year has been his best work yet.
How Gary Gait developed 1 of college lacrosse’s largest coaching trees
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When the lacrosse season went on pause at the start of the pandemic, Syracuse women’s lacrosse head coach Gary Gait spent some of his extra time on Zoom with former Syracuse players.
He held a “coaching clinic” for former SU women’s lacrosse players who made the jump to coaching at schools around the country after playing at SU. In a series of virtual discussions with a group of former players, he spoke to alumni dating back to the beginning of Gait’s tenure in 2007. Several coaches also said that they use several of Gait’s strategies with their own teams.
“(Gait)’s the greatest player to ever play our sport,” said Boston College women’s lacrosse associate head coach Kayla Treanor. “He really teaches you the game at another level, and I think it’s such a gift he gave us.”
Treanor was an attack under Gait from 2013-16, finishing her career fourth on the Division I all-time scoring list with 393 points. She now sits at seventh on the all-time scoring list. Treanor grew up a “coach’s kid” and was a water girl for the high school basketball teams that her dad coached. She loved watching her dad coach and always knew she wanted to be a lacrosse coach after college.
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Gait allows his attacks to read the defense and make their own decisions on offense, which Treanor said ultimately allows them to understand the game more. Gait is a sort of a player’s coach who gives his players the opportunity to deviate from his game plan and be more creative on the field, Treanor said. She pointed out that creativity led to SU’s offensive success this season as the Orange averaged 14.71 goals per game.
Gait’s coaching style also allows players to be “trusted in bigger moments,” Treanor said. One of these moments occurred when Treanor’s Eagles played against the Orange in the Atlantic Coast Conference Tournament semifinal. For the game’s final dagger, SU freshman Emma Ward faked a pass to escape the motion set and charged the 8-meter for a score.
Nicole Levy played under Gait from 2016-19, and she now serves as an assistant lacrosse coach at Colorado. She said the freedom Gait gives his players is an aspect that’s unique to Syracuse.
Levy played “sidearm” in high school, a style that many coaches told her wouldn’t work at the college level. But when she attended her first Syracuse lacrosse camp in high school, the opening drill was sidearm partner passing.
“Not every coach is willing to let their players be who they are and be creative to try something new,” Levy said.
One of the reasons many players on Gait’s team become coaches is because of the types of players that he recruits, Levy said. The “lax rats” of the world, who want to learn the most about lacrosse, gravitate toward Syracuse and Gait, she said. Treanor said that playing under Gait was one of the major reasons she wanted to play at Syracuse.
Gait also helps his former players improve their programs’ recruiting process, said Katie Rowan Rowan Thomson, UAlbany’s head coach and Syracuse’s all-time points leader. Gait had conversations with his former players about recruiting so they’d know what to look for in players and how to find the right players.
“He always wanted to hear what I was looking for in a program and help reach my goals,” Rowan Thomson said. “I know he’s only a phone call away.”
On April 13, Rowan Thomson faced Gait for the third time when UAlbany fell to Syracuse 16-6. Rowan Thomson said that it’s fun to face her former coach and team, but preparing for a game against Gait’s Orange can be difficult because of the amount of starpower on his team.
“It’s really special for me to prepare for them and play against them,” Rowan Thomson said. “It’s an honor even though it’s a challenge.”
Several former SU players across the country have stepped into coaching roles recently, Treanor said. They still keep in touch through a GroupMe, congratulating each other on successes, such as when Rowan Thomson and Drexel head coach Jill Batcheller earned Coach of the Year honors in their respective conferences.
“It’s pretty amazing what the Syracuse alumni are doing in coaching,” Treanor said. “It’s really special.”
Published on May 9, 2021 at 10:51 pm
Contact Anish: [email protected]
Legends Reunited: Gary and Paul Gait are Back in Business
Legends Reunited: Gary and Paul Gait are Back in Business
Wed Jan 8 2020 | Matt DaSilva | Pro
Gary (left) and Paul Gait couldn’t talk business for the longest time. Now, it’s an “opportunity to start fresh.”
This story appears in the January 2020 edition of US Lacrosse Magazine. Don’t get the mag? Head to USLacrosse.org to subscribe.
Gen Xers rejoice. The Gait brothers are back in business.
Gait Lacrosse, the equipment brand with a cult following, relaunched this fall after a four-year hiatus. The new line included legacy products like the Gait Torque head and Gait Ice handle, as well as a women’s head, the Gait Air.
“This is an opportunity to start fresh, especially on the women’s side,” founder Paul Gait said. “What we wanted to do with the Gait brand is push the envelope, try new technology and create products with truly performance-enhancing features.”
And who better to partner with in that endeavor than his slightly older (by three minutes), slightly more famous twin brother, Gary? They’re 52 now. If you’re of a certain age, you remember watching them reinvent lacrosse as college kids who played with unprecedented flair at Syracuse and put pro lacrosse on the map.
If you’re younger, you know Gary Gait as the Syracuse women’s coach, whose innovative spirit has permeated the sport in the evolution of equipment and rules and whose showmanship has been reincarnated in stars like Michelle Tumolo and Kayla Treanor.
Until recently, however, Paul and Gary Gait never could talk shop. Their conversations would end in a screeching halt, like a party-stopping record scratch. For the last 25 years, they’ve been competitors.
Both twins were associated with STX when they came out of college in 1990. In 1995, Paul went his own way. He started a retail business, then designed equipment for deBeer, engineering the Apex head and the Trakker pocket that revolutionized women’s lacrosse sticks. He became the company’s president in 2003, launching the Gait men’s brand.
Gary Gait, meanwhile, continued to work in product development for STX even as his coaching career took off. His contract expired last year.
Reunited, and it feels so good.
“It’s good to have one of the great minds on your side instead of on your opponent’s side,” Paul Gait said. “I’ve always tried to stay behind the scenes. I like when he’s the front man.”
When parent company Jarden discontinued the deBeer and Gait lines in 2015, Paul Gait kept this renaissance in the back of his mind. He started Vertical Lax/Team 22, which became the exclusive licensee of Under Armour equipment, and LaxPocket, which specializes in stringing women’s sticks with its popular Rail pocket.
But the end game was always to bring back Gait Lacrosse, with the full weight of the brand’s namesake behind it. Paul and Gary’s first collaboration, the Gait Draw, will be featured this month at the US Lacrosse Convention in Philadelphia. The double-sidewall design essentially gives the head two pockets — a deeper front pocket for the draw and one with standard depth for field play. No more swapping sticks.
“We nailed it on this women’s draw stick,” Paul Gait said. “If you don’t have it and you’re up against one, chances are you’re going to lose.”
The Gaits also will unveil LaxPocket’s new Flex Mesh, expected to be the next revolutionary pocket for women’s lacrosse, at the convention.
“It’s nice to be the Gait brothers again,” Gary Gait said. “He’s doing his thing in manufacturing. I’ve been doing mine on the lacrosse side. It’s time to bring these two forces together.”
To learn more about LaxCon 2020, check out our “What to Watch for.”
The Gait Brothers Are The GOATS… For Real
Gait Lacrosse recently announced that they are BACK IN BUSINESS. The equipment company was founded by the Gait brothers — Gary and Paul — and we must say, it is a most joyous occasion to see the company back in the lacrosse world. We can hardly contain ourselves:
For those unfamiliar with the Gait brothers because they were before your time — which, by the way, is absolutely zero excuse to not know who they are — they were two of possibly the greatest lacrosse players to ever play the game.
Both Gary and Paul Gait played at Syracuse University from 1987-1990. Fun fact: the Gait brothers are twins, which is why they played during the exact same years. Gary and Paul won three national championships together and set numerous NCAA records, like the Syracuse career goals record and the record for most goals in an NCAA season (a record broken in 2008).
The Gait brothers were known for popularizing behind-the-back passes and their patented move known as the “Air Gate”, as seen below:
The “Air Gait”
Both Gary and Paul Gait have been stars at virtually every level of lacrosse, including the National Lacrosse League, Major League Lacrosse, the Western Lacrosse Association and the international stage playing for Team Canada.
Gary had a longer NLL career, but Paul was every bit his equal on the floor. Gary played for 17 years in the NLL as he won Rookie of the Year in 1991, and even won five-straight league MVP honors from from 1995-1999. Paul, however, would win an NLL MVP award himself in 2002 as he led the league in goals and points and was a three-time MVP of the Mann Cup in Canadian professional box lacrosse — sharing the MVP award with Gary in 1999. Paul finished his career in the NLL with a staggering 712 points in 13 seasons.
In 2005, both of the Gait brothers were inducted into the US Lacrosse National Hall of Fame. They were both also voted into the National Lacrosse League Hall of Fame in 2006.
Gary currently coaches at Syracuse University for the women’s team, and has also coached in the NLL for the Colorado Mammoth and in the MLL for the now-defunct Hamilton Nationals. Paul spent a few seasons coaching for the Rochester Knighthawks.
Now, the Gait brothers have brought back Gait Lacrosse, best known for creating exceptional products such as the Torque head — a head that has been especially popular in the indoor game.
Here’s a graphic that Gait Lacrosse released of the relaunch:
Take a look at a few of the Gait brothers highlights found below and behold their magnificence.
The Gait Brothers… Enough Said
Paul Gait – BC Sports Hall of Fame
Ask Paul Gait about the biggest surprise of his storied lacrosse career and he’s likely to tell you it’s the fact both he and his twin brother Gary are likely the first two professional lacrosse players to make their entire living from the game.
“Lacrosse chose us,” he says.
As boys they excelled at anything that could be played—soccer, basketball, rugby, track and field. Take your pick, there’s a good chance they could have taken it pro. Yet, in the end it was lacrosse. First as players, then coaches, then equipment distributors, and from here, who knows. In today’s world of multi-million dollar contracts and ballooning endorsement deals for athletes in other major sports, it doesn’t sound like much of a statement—“to make your entire living from the game”—but first consider where they came from, where the game of lacrosse was, and where Paul Gait went with it.
Born in Victoria, Paul learned the game beside his twin brother Gary and next door neighbours Greg and Grant Pepper, also twins their age. Their father Fred and Greg and Grant’s father, Bob, first introduced them to lacrosse and coached the boys until age eleven. Looking to take their play to another level, the dads hired former Victoria Shamrocks player Ron McNeill as coach. Both Gaits attribute much of their success to McNeill now, ahead of his time in terms of teaching young kids technical skills and visualization, meditation, interval training, and nasal breathing techniques that just weren’t taught at that time.
In 1986, Paul won a full scholarship to New York’s Syracuse University and with brother Gary led the Orange to three national championships in four years. Three times Paul earned All-American standing and was named MVP of the 1989 NCAA Championship tournament.
Upon graduation, professional lacrosse was just taking hold in the US. A Kansas entertainment company specializing in monster trucks had established a fledgling indoor professional lacrosse league and needed star power. Enter Paul and Gary Gait. Over Paul’s thirteen-year pro career he won nine championships: one Minto Cup (with Esquimalt-Victoria Legion), four Mann Cups (one with Victoria), three NLL championships, and one MLL title.
The only player whose team and individual accomplishments rival those of his twin brother, it’s not difficult to see why Paul’s name enters the discussion for greatest lacrosse player of all-time early and often. Four times he led the NLL in goal scoring, eight times was named to the First-Team All Pro, and in 2002 he won the league’s MVP award. Paul currently ranks as the NLL’s third all-time goal-scorer (410) and eighth in points (712). Lacrosse Magazine and the NCAA named him to its All-Twentieth Century Team and 25th Anniversary Team respectively. Four times he represented Canada at the ILF World Championships, earning All-World honours in 1994.
Like Gary, Paul is also inducted into the US Lacrosse National Hall of Fame and the NLL Hall of Fame. Currently, Paul remains heavily involved with the Gaits’ own brand of lacrosse equipment, Gait Lacrosse based in Syracuse.
Written and researched by Jason Beck, Curator of the BC Sports Hall of Fame.
Gait Lacrosse
What is Gait Lacrosse?
Gait Lacrosse is the phrase used when the Gait brothers played, and dominated, the game of lacrosse. Paul and Gary Gait are twin brothers who revolutionized the game. Gary GaitGary Gait was born in 1967 in Canada. He attended Syracuse University with his twin brother Paul Gait. He played lacrosse there for four years. During his four years of play, he set many records. Gary was a three-time first team All-American, and was an honorable mention once. With 192 goals, he graduated as Syracuse’s all-time leading goal scorer. Gary Gait was also the NCAA Player of the Year in 1988 and 1990. During his college playing days, he perfected a shot known as “Air Gait”. Gary would stand behind the net, and suddenly start running right towards it. Just before the crease, Gary jumped, and slam-dunked the lacrosse ball into the back of the net. Then he would land on the opposite side of the crease. This was a huge Gait lacrosse manuever. In 1991, Gary started playing in the NLL (National Lacrosse League), and became the rookie-of-the-year. In 2005, Gary retired from the NLL, and they retired his jersey. This is still the only jersey to be retired in the National Lacrosse League. Gary was also a coach for the National Lacrosse League and Major League Lacrosse. Gary is in both the United States Lacrosse National Hall of Fame, and the National Lacrosse League Hall of Fame. Gary Gait was arguably the most successful lacrosse player to have ever played, and certainly one of the most recognized. |
Paul Gait
Paul Gait was born in 1967 in Canada, and has a twin brother named Gary Gait.
The two played lacrosse for four years at Syracuse University, where Paul, like his brother, also set many records.
Paul went on to graduate, and play in the National Lacrosse League. Paul was very successful in the NLL as well.
In 1996, Paul and Gary started their own brand of lacrosse equipment called GBLax (Gait Brothers Lacrosse).
Paul is in both the United States Lacrosse National Hall of Fame, and the National Lacrosse League Hall of Fame.
The Gait Brothers
The two Gait Brothers are known as the best lacrosse players of all time. They set many records, and have lifetime acheivements that many people would have thought impossible. Both Paul and Gary’s style of play will forever be known as “Gait-Lacrosse”.
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90,000 Gary Gait – Russian
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Gary Charles Guythe (born April 5, 1967) is a retired Canadian professional lacrosse player, currently the head coach of the women’s lacrosse team at Syracuse University, where he practiced the sport collegially. On January 24, 2017, he was named Interim Lacrosse Commissioner of the Women’s United League.
He played collegially for the Syracuse Orange men’s lacrosse team and professionally in the indoor National Lacrosse League and MLL outdoors, while representing Canada internationally.Gait was inducted into the United States National Lacrosse Hall of Fame and the National Lacrosse League Hall of Fame.
He was a four-time American on the Syracuse Orange men’s lacrosse team from 1987-90. (including first-team honors from 1988 to 1990), and has also been on three NCAA Championship winning teams. Winner of the Lieutenant Raymond Enners Award for Outstanding College Lacrosse Player twice in 1988 and 1990. Gate set the Syracuse record for career goals at 192 and the record for single-season goals at 70, an NCAA record until 2008.In 1997, the NCAA lacrosse committee named Gaita, along with his twin brother and Syracuse teammate Paul, a 25-year-old lacrosse player.
He played NLL for 17 years, won Rookie of the Year in 1991, won league MVP awards for five consecutive years from 1995 to 99, and won All-Pro awards every season. Gate led the league seven times in points and goals, won three league championships and ended his indoor career with 191 points, a league record at the time.
Gait also played five seasons in MLL from 2001 to 2005, winning the league title and co-MVP three times in 2005.
He helped Canada win the 2006 Lacrosse World Cup, the first World Cup since 1978, by scoring four goals in the final against the United States.
College Career
Gary Guyt and his twin brother Paul played lacrosse for Syracuse orange at Syracuse University from 1987 to 1990, where they set numerous records.Gate has been named an American by USILA four times – three times as First Team and once as an Honorable Mention. Gary graduated from Syracuse University as the consummate goalkeeper with 192 career goals. He led Orange in three NCAA DI championships and was named NCAA Player of the Year in 1988 and 1990, as well as Outstanding Player of the 1990 NCAA Tournament.
The Gait twins are also widely known for popularizing innovative games such as passes and kicks behind the back and “Air Gait,” an acrobatic scoring move where they jump from a crease and score a goal in the air by submerging the ball over the top crossbar and landing. to the side opposite from the fold.This move was later banned in the NCAA game.
NLL career
Detroit (1991-92)
Gait began playing in the Big Indoor Lacrosse League (later the National Lacrosse League) in 1991. He was recruited by Detroit Turbos, which got both the Gait brothers in a somewhat controversial double-tackle. He won the MILL Championship this season and received the Rookie of the Year award. He played Detroit for another season before both of his brothers were traded for the Philadelphia Wings in 1993.This deal was highly controversial, as the Wings traded all of their draft teams for Detroit for two players.
Philadelphia (1993-97)
Gait played five seasons on the Philadelphia Wings. The first four years at the “Wings” Gayt attended the championship and won the title twice (1994 1995). He was named MVP of the league in 1996 and 1997, and in 1995 he became the champion MVP. Guyt has spent more time with Wings than any other NLL / MILL team, and this is where he is most remembered for playing.In 1995, Gary’s brother Paul was traded to Rochester, splitting the brothers until they played together at Washington Power in 2001. In the 1998 season, Gary was traded to Baltimore to play closer to his home.
Baltimore Thunder (1998-99)
The gait only played two seasons with Baltimore Thunder. In their first year with Team Gait, they went to the Championship, which became the new Best of 3 series. In two games they were beaten to zero by his former Philadelphia Wings.In the 1998 season, Gight was still voted the league’s best player for how much he helped Baltimore improve. In 1999, Baltimore went 8-4 in the regular season, but lost to Rochester Nightwax in the first round of the playoffs. In 2000, Baltimore Thunder moved to Pittsburgh Crossfire and Gary moved in with the franchise.
Pittsburgh CrosseFire (2000)
In Pittsburgh’s only season, they went 6-6 and missed the playoffs. For the first time in Gait’s NLL / MILL career, he missed the playoffs, having conceded only 3 times in his entire 18-season career.After a not very successful first season, CrossFire moved to Washington, where Washington Power became.
Washington Power (2001-02)
The Washington Power existed in those two seasons, and they made it to the playoffs. Gary was present in both of these seasons, as was his brother Paul, having merged them for the first time since 1994 when they both played in Philadelphia. In 2001, Washington lost in the semi-finals to Toronto with a final score of 10: 9. In 2002, Washington beat Philadelphia in the quarterfinals 10:11 before a rematch with Toronto in the semifinals, where Power was beaten 11:12.Washington Power faced low attendance and as such moved to Colorado where it became the Colorado Mammoth. As with Thunder and CrosseFire, Gait continued to move with the franchise as it moved back to Colorado.
Colorado Mammoth (2003-05)
Walk played with the Colorado Mammoth for three seasons. In his first game of the 2006 season, Gary was honored with the Mammoth. On December 30, 2005, at the Pepsi Center in Denver, Colorado, the Colorado Mammoth raised his number (22) on the rafters, making him the second player in NLL history to retire after Darris Kilgour of Buffalo.They made the playoffs all three seasons, but never made any progress in the championship. Guyte announced his retirement after the 2005 season. He was then elected to the NLL Hall of Fame along with his brother Paul. After retiring, he became the head coach of Mammoth in 2006 2007, but resigned as head coach in August 2007 to pursue other interests.
Rochester Knights (2009-11)
Guyt returned to NLL in 2009 when he joined the Rochester Knights.For the 2009 season, Gary was named an All-Star Reservist. In 2009, Gary also made his last visit to the NLL playoffs, as the Knights missed the playoffs in the 2010 and 2011 seasons. After the 2011 season, Gary announced that he would retire from the NLL game for good to pursue a career as a lacrosse coach.
Gary Guythe has had one of the most spectacular NLL careers of any player in league history. He has the second highest career achievement among players with 635 and the third highest goals per game in league history with 3.207 goals per game. Gary also scored the most goals in a single game – 10, his number was retired by Colorado, and he is a member of the National Lacrosse League Hall of Fame.
career MLL
Gait has played in the Major League Lacrosse since its founding in 2001. He was a member of the Long Island Lizards. After the first season, The Walk was sold to the Baltimore Hawks, where he served as coach-player for the next four years. In 2005, Gayt won the Steinfeld Cup as coach-player.He scored six goals in a championship game and was named MVP in both that game and this season.
Gait initially retired from MLL in 2005, but recently returned and signed with the Hamilton Nationals for their inaugural season in 2009.
career WLA
Gait, along with his brother, had outstanding seasons with Victoria Shamrock of the Western Lacrosse Association. Gait won the Mike Kelly Memorial Trophy as Mann Cup Most Valuable Player as Shamrock in 1997, and shared the Most Valuable Player Award with her brother Paul in 1999.
Coaching career
In June 2005, Guyt was named head coach of his former NLL team, the Colorado Mammoth. After a 10-6 season in which Mammoth finished second in the Western Division, Guyt led them to an overtime of 18-17 wins over Calgary and 13-12 wins over Arizona, before closing out the Eastern Division champion Buffalo Bandits 16-9 in a championship game. Guyt became the first rookie head coach to win a championship since Tony Resch did so with the Philadelphia Wings in 1994, the team Guyt played on.
In August 2007, Guyt retired after two seasons as head coach of the Mammoth and returned to his alma mater at Syracuse University, becoming the second head coach in the history of the women’s lacrosse program. Prior to that, Gate worked as an assistant coach on the women’s team at the University of Maryland for nine seasons.
On February 3, 2011, Gait was announced as the new assistant coach for Hamilton’s National Games in the Lacrosse Major League.
International Lacrosse Quarry
Guyt was a member of the Canadian national team in 1990, 1994, 1998, 2004 and 2006.In the same final year, he led Canada to a historic 15-10 victory over the United States in the 2006 World Lacrosse Championship, his last international game. Gait scored four goals in the last quarter, marking a fabulous end to his international playing career as the World Cup gave him every major lacrosse title possible (three NCAA championships in Syracuse in 1988, 1989, 1990, three NLL championships in 1991, 1994, 1995 , three Mann Cups in 2001, 2002, 2005, three Mann Cups in 1991, 1997, 1999, the Heritage Cup in 2004 and the International Lacrosse Federation World Championship in 2006).
International Game Results
1990 – Finalist of the World Lacrosse Championship.
1994 – Third place at the World Lacrosse Championship.
1998 – World Lacrosse Championship finalist.
2002 – Finalist of the Heritage Cup
2004 – Winner of the Heritage Cup
2006 – Winner of the World Lacrosse Championship.
Club Lacrosse Career
Gait also played amateur lacrosse for the legendary Mount Washington Lacrosse club in the 1990s, The Baltimore Sun, June 13, 1993, reinstated May 26, 2010.
Statistics
NLL
Link –
Syracuse University
– a) 5th place for one-season purposes of the NSAA.
– b) 6th place in career goals NCAA
Records and awards
Gait has set many NLL records throughout his career.
Gait has been named an NLL MVP six times, including five straight seasons. Apart from Gary Gait, only John Tavares (3 times) has ever won this award more than once.
He also received the NLL Sports Excellence Award twice, in 2004 (tie with Peter Lough) and in 2005.
NLL Weekly and Monthly Bonuses …
Player of the Week (1994-2001) – 7 times
Overall Player of the Week (2002 – present) – 6 times
Forward Player of the Week (2002 – present) – 3 times
Player of the Month – 6 times
Gait was named the MLL MVP for his final season in 2005, sharing it with Mark Millon. In the same season, he also topped the league in goals and points with 42 and 21 assists in 63 points.
MLL Weekly Awards
Forward of the Week – 2x
In 2011, Gary, along with his twin brother Paul Guyt, was honored with the highest honor in his home province.The British Columbia Sports Hall of Fame will place the legendary brothers into its Hall of Fame on September 13, 2011 at a ceremony in Vancouver.
personal life
Gate lives in Fayetteville, New York with his wife Nicole and their children.
Text on this page is based on translation of the Wikipedia page by Gary Gait
Material used under a Creative Commons Attribution-Share-Alike License
Modified Drop Tower Impact Tests for American Football Helmets
Motivation
The main goal of this modified drop tower test method is to more closely represent the impact of the American football helmet system on the field of impact and to help expand safety standards.The entailed test method can provide the knowledge of systematic response helmets necessary for the effective development of a reinforced headgear to prevent concussion. The occurrence of concussions is plagued by contact sports such as American football. In the United States alone, sports-related concussions are estimated to occur 1.6 to 3.8 million times each year. 1 A footballer can have over 1500 head impacts each season. 2, 3 While the magnitude of most exposures can be sub-shocking, the accumulation of these exposures can lead to long-term brain damage due to exposure to an induced neurodegenerative disease known as chronic traumatic encephalopathy (CTE). 4 CTE is associated with the accumulation of tau protein in the brain, resulting in memory loss, behavior and personality changes, Parkinson’s syndrome, and speech and gait abnormalities that sometimes lead to suicide. 5 Football helmets have made several technological advances over the last 15 years, but even today the most modern helmets do not completely cushion all the falling forces on the helmet and therefore athletes still suffer concussions. A study by Barch and et al. 6 showed that in many cases head dose exposure and traumatic brain injury risks, while dark vintage Leatherhead helmets were comparable to those worn widely used 21 – 90 125 90 126 century helmets illustrating the need for improved design and testing standards of football helmets. Specifically, the NOCSAE 7 certification does not require a large helmet to be included in a helmet drop test. The added rigidity from the tone of a large helmet attached to the helmet would drastically change the overall mechanical response.The present study proposes a method to provide more robust helmet safety standards that will serve as a driving force to promote safer helmet design.
Background
Head Injury Metrics
The exact biological mechanisms associated with concussions remain unidentified. Although much has been done in an attempt to quantify the tolerances of head injury for various measures of injury, disagreement has arisen in the biomedical community regarding these criteria.These mechanisms of injury must relate to multiple individuals: linear acceleration, rotational acceleration, exposure duration, and impulse. 8, 9, 10, 11 Several Injury criteria have been used to define contusion as a measure of linear acceleration. Wayne State Tolerance Curve (WSTC) 12, 13, 14 was designed to predict skull fracture for frontal impact car accidents by defining the threshold curve for linear acceleration versus duration of exposure.The WSTC served as the basis for other injury criteria such as the Severity Index (SI) 11 and Head Injury Criterion (HIC), 15 , which are the two most commonly used criteria. SI and HIC as a measure of severity impact based on weighted integrals of linear time acceleration profiles. While these criteria define thresholds for linear acceleration, other criteria have been proposed to account for rotational acceleration, such as the head impact power index. 8, 10, 16 Today’s helmet testing standards often use an injury criterion based on the Wayne State to have alerance curve (namely ICC or SI), or peak acceleration criterion, or in some cases both. While some changes are needed to add angular acceleration to the standard performance criteria, linear based acceleration criteria remain dominant.
In this study, the metrics used to assess the relative safety that each helmet provided were the apex of the resulting values for acceleration, SI, and SVD.Of these indicators, only SI is used for evaluation in the current National Working Committee for Standards for Sports Equipment (NOCSAE) Football Helmet Standards. SI is based on the following equation,
(1)
where A is the translational acceleration of the center of gravity (CG) of the head, and T is the acceleration time. 11, 17 SI was calculated according to the standards NOCSAE 18, where the calculation is limited to 4 G thresholds according to the resulting acceleration curve.SVD values were calculated according to the following equation,
(2)
where a translational acceleration CG of the head and t 1 and t 2 represent the start and end times, respectively, of the interval at which the HIC reaches its maximum value. All CTG values calculated in this study were MCX 36, where the duration of the time interval is limited to 36 ms.
NOCSAE Football Helmet Test Standards
NOCSAE Review
In 1969 NOCSAE was formed to develop performance standards for American football helmets / faceguards and other sports equipment with the aim of reducing sports injuries. 1 7 The NOCSAE Football Helmet Standards were developed by Dr. Voigt Hodgson 9 Wayne State University to reduce head injuries by establishing impact attenuation and structural integrity requirements for football helmets / faceguards. These standards include football helmet test certification and annual recertification procedures for helmets. In 2015, NOCSAE implemented a quality assurance program requiring the use of a specific American National Standards Institute (ANSI) accredited helmet certification body.
Test Method NOCSAE
NOCSAE Football Helmet The standard does not include testing helmets with faceguards, as this requires their removal before helmet drops are carried out. NOCSAE helmet test standards 17 use a two-wire drop crusher that relies on gravity to accelerate the dummy helmet combination of required impact speeds. NOCSAE head model with instrumental shIth triaxial accelerometers at the center of gravity. The combination of a dummy head and helmet is then dropped at specific speeds onto a steel anvil covered with a 12.7 mm thick ebonite Modular Elastomer Programmer (MEP) pad.On impact, the instantaneous acceleration is recorded and the SI values are calculated. These SI values are compared with the pass / fail criterion for a variety of required exposure locations and speeds and temperatures, including the environment and high exposure temperatures. If the obtained SI value for any impact violates the threshold, the helmet will not pass the test.
A separate standard test method is used for the certification of the football big helmet. The NOCSAE Football Grand Slam standard includes an analysis of structural integrity as well as an assessment of the impact of the attenuation characteristics of the helmet and chin strap of their attachment system.Each exposure measurement must be below 1200 SI in order to pass the test, without facial contact and without intermittent failure of any component as defined by the NOCSAE standard. 19
There is a proposed optional NOCSAE (Linear Impact (LI)) test 20 , which includes a helmet with a Grand Slam, but it is not suitable for certification of a football helmet because it cannot recognize the influence of the crown. LI uses a pneumatic ram to act on the helmet, located on the NOCSAE dummy equipped with a hybrid III dummy neck mounted on a linear bearing table in order to induce angular acceleration.For this reason, the LI test is an optional test to the current two-wire NOCSAE drop test procedures and is not a replacement. 20, 21 Instead of testing LI, we suggest simply adding two more scenarios to the current two-wire drop test procedure.
The NOCSAE Standard Test Method for Certification of Football Helmets currently includes six Locations Prescribed Impact and one Random Impact Location.Prescribed exposure locations include the following: Front (F), Front Boss (FB), Side (S), Rear (R), Rear Boss (RB), and Top (T). The random exposure location test can select a region from anywhere within the helmet’s defined acceptable exposure area. Impact locations for our modified NOCSAE tower drop tests include replacing the previously identified Front and Front Boss impact locations with what has been named as Front Top (FT) and Front Top Boss impact locations (PTB).Our front-top and front Top Boss impact points are identical to the impact points and right frontal Boss of the NOCSAE standard for Lacrosse helmets, which also includes a large helmet for drop tests. 22 The helmet shell impact locations, including the replaced front and front Boss seats, are depicted in Figure . In addition, the modified helmet test method of our present study includes two Impac Grand Slam seats, which were named FG front and FG to bottom.The two impact locations for the Grand Slam are identical to the required impact locations for current NOCSAE Grand Slam certification procedures. The eight impact locations for the modified NOCSAE impact tests of this study are shown in Figure 2.
Figure 1: Approximate impact location for football helmets. Six currently required NOCSAE impact helmet drop test seats, Front (F), Front Boss (FB), Side (S), Top (T), Rear (R), and Rear Boss (RB), plus two seats the impacts are projected, Front Top (FT) and Front Top Boss (PTB).Note: The NOCSAE Standard Test Method for Safety Helmets does not include the Front Top and Front Top Boss Impact Locations (shown in red) and for this study, they replace the Front and Front Boss Impact Locations. (Image modified from NOCSAE DOC. 001-13m15b)
Figure 2: Modified NOCSAE test rig , showing eight impact locations. Front Top, Front Top Boss, Side, Grand Slam (FG) Front, Back, Rear Boss, Upper and Lower Grand Slam (FB).Note: The NOCSAE standard does not include attachments and the big helmet here is the front-top and front-top Top Boss replace the standard Front and Front Boss impact spots. (Image modified from NOCSAE DOC. 002-11m12) Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.
Helmet designs have evolved progressively over the past decade, while NOCSAE’s soccer helmet standards have never included a large helmet with the ELMET in evaluating the technical performance of a soccer helmet.Although, more recently, an amendment has been made to include a pass / fail value of 300 SI for low impact velocities (3.46 m / s), the total credit / fail limit of 1200 SI has not changed since 1997 90 125 17 90 126 Until 1997, NOCSAE used 1500 SI Pass / Fail criterion. Hodgson and et al. (1970) showed that SI values of over 1000 are life threatening, while SI values of 540 produced linear skull fractures in non-cadaveric impact test helmets. 23 Most modern football helmets have shown to pass well below the 1200 SI limit, but not all below 540 SI.
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Boston College Lacrosse Star Closes Season At Boston College
Towson, MD – May 30: Boston College # 8 Charlotte North Eagles shoots … [+] Syracuse Orange in the second half during the NCAA Women’s Division I Lacrosse Championship 2021 at Johnny Unitas Stadium on May 30, 2021 in Towson, Maryland. (Photo by Patrick Smith / Getty Images)
Getty Images
On the day Charlotte North broke the record for one season in NCAA women’s lacrosse, she only wanted to talk about her team.
That says a lot about how the Boston College Eagles finally managed to break into the program’s first championship title after losing the final round the previous three times when the competition was contested.
North, a senior prodigy who moved after two seasons with Duke, scored six goals Sunday when the Eagles with a fourth seeded (18-3) pulled away from 2nd in Syracuse for a 16-10 win at Johnny Unitas Stadium in Towson … Mkr.
It was fitting that Orange coach Gary Gate watched from the other sideline.The acclaimed author of Air Walking set a 70-point record for men’s lacrosse in college three decades ago, a record that lasted until 2008.
Towson, MD – May 30: Charlotte North No. 8 of Boston College Eagles celebrates with head coach … [+] Acacia Walker-Weinstein after winning the Division I Women’s Lacrosse 16-10 Championship against Syracuse Orange ”, Which took place at Johnny Unitas Stadium on May 30, 2021 in Towson, Maryland. (Photo by Greg Fiume / NCAA Photos via Getty Images)
NCAA Photos via Getty Images
It was North who started the game in just 2 and a half minutes, and North put BC ahead again to be left with a goal that broke the score 7-7 at the end of the first half.
She set a record midway through the second half and added a capper in the last minutes to finish with 102 points in a year. That was two goals short of Courtney Murphy’s five-year mark at Stony Brook.
North, who averaged 4.86 goals per game, scored 10 goals against Virginia Tech in April and scored eight in the game two more times. She has every move, every dodge, every trick in the book, and has even added a few signature shots of her own.
Her best can be a hypnotic circular motion on a standard stage from 8 meters away. Fired with a speed and precision rarely seen in women’s games, this shot captivates even the best goalkeepers.
North also has all kinds of passes and throws from behind, which she is constantly working on with BC assistant Kayla Trinor. But it was a seemingly impossible shot, a fake, back to cage, a fool between his legs that went viral on Twitter back in January.
“She has the potential to be the most exciting player in the game,” Eagles coach Acacia Walker-Weinstein said ahead of the season. “We told her we believed in her and wanted her to take her game and women’s lacrosse to the next level. I hope she does it. I know she will do it.
Four months later, the coach’s words were prophetic.
North’s last college game allowed her to get the best out of her longtime rival and Dallas product colleague, Megan Carney of Syracuse.The two remain good friends, and it is hoped that their success will open the door to more young lacrosse players from the football-crazed state.
“There are a lot more people in Texas lacrosse colleges, which is great,” North said during an interview with ACC in April. “This is a testament to the talent there and the coaches who develop the sport there. It’s definitely fun when we’re playing against each other. It reminds us where we are from and how special it is. ”
Maggie Koch, who coached North at Dallas Episcopal School, traveled to Towson, Maryland to support her former player in her quest.
“The circle is complete, because without her I wouldn’t be here,” North said. “Now, when we return home, we see that talent is growing by the second. The trainers are incredible. Since high school, they have made us believe that we can play at the level of the first division. ”
Source: https://www.forbes.com/sites/mikeberardino/2021/05/30/lacrosse-star-charlotte-north-caps-a-season-for-the-ages-with-boston-college/
90,000 List of Canadian Lacrosse Hall of Fame members
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Festival of Urban Culture “Direct Contact”
“Direct Contact” is an open-air festival of youth urban culture dedicated to unusual sports of a new generation
Crazy tricks on jolly jumpers, sea billiards, figure skating on bicycles, frisbee ballet, rugby with a butterfly net, sports wind hunting and other unexpected sports inventions that have become really popular in Russia in recent years.
The alternative sports parade will end with a concert by Xuman, a popular young Russian band that plays European electro-pop and is a full line-up. The team has recorded several witty video clips, appreciated at their true worth in Russian and Western blogs, as well as a whole community of young Russian musicians united by the Xuman Records label.
Festival venues
Rock climbing
We will install an artificial seven-meter rock in the park so that everyone can feel like a climber.Experienced instructors will help you put on your equipment correctly and safely conquer the summit.
Sports trampolines
Children and adults will be able to warm up before the upcoming matches on simulators, which are used to prepare astronauts for flights.
Yoga Dance Capoeira
All day in the Alpbau tent – yoga, capoeira, dance aerobics, latina, C-Walk, Hip-Hop, Lady’s dance and other modern fitness with meaning.
Yo-yo and Diabolo
Mounts, hops, vips, suisides – you will see these and other cunning tricks with a simple toy on a string and learn to juggle with the “devil on two sticks”.
Flatland
You can not only ride a bike, but also dance. Riders will show you how to balance on the rear wheel, spin on the front wheel, jump 180 degrees without touching the ground with your feet.For the most daring, a master class will be held every hour to teach the basics of this fashionable and young type of cycling.
Bocking
This sport was born in 2004, when the German inventor Alexander Bock came up with unique boots-runners or, as they are called today, jolly jumpers. For some, the new springy stilts have become a source of extreme and adrenaline rush. For others, it is a way to quickly lose weight and improve health: unlike running and walking, jumping on jumpers does not overload the joints and spine, improve posture and develop the vestibular apparatus.We invite you to see for yourself.
Frisbee
It is not completely clear what exactly inspired the creators of frisbee – UFOs or tin trays for pies, which American students threw at recess. Most likely both. Today many people like to “leave the plate” in the park or on the beach, but not everyone knows that there are more than ten varieties of this game in the world. At the festival you will be able to play frisbee shooting, ken jam, disc golf and freaketting.
Panna
This is a mixture of football freestyle and street football, where the main task is not to score a goal into the goal, but to throw the ball between the opponent’s legs. The festival will host a tournament among panna masters and training sessions for everyone who wants to join this “purest kind of football”, as its fans call it.
Shuffleboard
When shuffleboard was just born in English pubs, the champion was simply the one who did not have double vision.This floor game, similar to the classics and curling at the same time, does not require special physical training and is perfect for any age.
Table sports
For sports fans, we have prepared miniature analogs of billiards, hockey and football as an idea. Our tabletop arsenal also includes more exotic games – rogue and novus.
Kites
In Russian chronicles there is a mention of the fact that the Novgorod prince Oleg used kites during the capture of Constantinople in 906.: “And he made horses and soldiers out of paper, and lifted them up into the sky above the city; then the Greeks saw them and were frightened. ” Not only snakes can be airy, but also birds, insects, sea monsters, dragons and fish. Managing them is a real art and a virtuoso sport. We will teach everyone how to tame the air “pets” and correctly place traps for the wind.
Go
This ancient Chinese game with white and black stones is played by almost 30 million people on earth, that is, on average, there is one go player for every 200 inhabitants of the planet.Many people remember what go looks like – thanks to the cult films Pi, A Beautiful Mind, and Tron: Legacy – but they don’t know the rules. At the Direct Contact Festival, you have a chance to join the global fan club of the board game, which is considered by a number of scientists to be the prototype of political, informational, conflict and economic models of humanity.
Slackline
Californian rock climbers taught the world to walk on a tight sling, who practiced balancing act on chains that fenced off parking lots.Today slackline has become an independent sport with its own championships and world records. Professional slackliners will demonstrate their skills and share the secrets of balancing gait with the guests of the festival.
Streetball
Street basketball has long ceased to be a courtyard game: in 2016 it will be included in the program of the Summer Olympic Games in Rio de Janeiro. It will be possible to push under the ring and “throw a three” in the pro team of the 3×3 game.
Runbike
Sport for the little ones is racing on pedalless bicycles, known as “runbikes” or “runbikes”.
Lacrosse
Canadian aborigines also loved to drive lacrosse; at that time the teams had from 100 to 1000 people, and the field of play stretched for three kilometers. The game with a rubber ball and a net came to Russia only 6 years ago, and the first official match took place in 2009.Perhaps lacrosse is your favorite sport, but you don’t know it yet. At the festival, we will install a special simulator that allows you to get acquainted with the basic skills of the game.
Games of our yard
Almost forgotten, but such wonderful games of Soviet childhood – rubber bands, bouncers, classics, “the sea worries once” – from courtyards may well become parks.
Hipster cap
The new wave of hipsters is prone to self-irony: the guys came up with their own championship, where they compete in such disciplines as coffee bowling, throwing throws, engribabouting and narrow jin pull.This is a sport for those who are tired of reibans, but continue to flaunt them.
Sports Paintball
Contrary to stereotypes, paintball is not only fun for corporate events, but also a serious sport with its own ranks, candidates and masters. In Russia, championships, championships and paintball competitions are regularly held in four leagues. Festival “Direct Contact” will open paintball for park visitors from a new, unexpected side.
Graffiti
The backdrop for street games and sports battles are bright frescoes on the facades of houses and fences.Artists will embody their ideas in the park throughout the day. And for those for whom it is too early to pick up a spray can of paint, we will hold a master class on tabletop graffiti.
90,000 Four events of the week in the KHL – Real time
The four main events of the week in the KHL
A week in Russian hockey has been rich in failures and scandals – Salavat Yulaev and Avtomobilist continue their peak to the bottom of the playoff eight, and Severstal is fighting with agents and the most strange legionnaire.At the same time, a tragedy happened in the hockey family – the owner of the Gagarin Cup passed away. About how Ufa and Yekaterinburg are going to get out of the crisis and how the conflict between Severstal and foreign snatchers will end – in Realnoe Vremya’s review of the events of the KHL week.
Question of the week: why is Salavat Lamsa diving to the bottom of the eight
The Ufa team suffered four defeats in the last five matches. Paradoxically, two of them are from Finnish “Jokerit” with a total score of 1: 6 – after all, it would seem that Tomi Lamsa could find at least some clues in the confrontation with his compatriots to fight or prepare a surprise.Who better than him to know how to deal with Finnish teams?
2:12 – this is the difference between goals scored and conceded in these five games, from which it is easy to conclude that Ufa has huge problems with attack and even bigger problems with defense.
In Ufa, Lamsa is also criticized for the content of hockey – according to local fans and journalists, Salavat Yulaev has moved away from its traditional attacking game and is now showing the saddest hockey in the last decade. Local journalists also talk about the deterioration of the microclimate in the team.
In Ufa, Lamsa is also criticized for the content of hockey. Photo: vk.com/hcsalavat
It turns out that it was not the “toxic” Soshnikov who was to blame for the bad atmosphere in the locker room, and even less the forward just stopped scoring – in CSKA his business went uphill. Nikita scored in his debut game for the army team, and in the recent top match with Avangard he scored 2 (1 + 1) points. Plus, the striker has already earned a call to the national team for the matches of the Channel One Cup.
The Finnish specialist himself, in response to questions about his resignation, translates the topic to “other solutions to the problem” and claims that the hockey players know what kind of hockey he asks them to play.But where is this weak link in the team, if everyone knows everything, but cannot give up and miss a lot?
Failure of the week: Bill Peters has serious problems
Whatever the problems of Ufa, in comparison with those in Yekaterinburg, they seem so far only minor troubles. Avtomobilist, pumped up by big contracts from UMMC, suffered ten defeats in a row with a catastrophic difference between goals scored and missed 12-40 goals. It all started on November 16 with a dry defeat from Ak Bars.
A complete hopeless failure, which finally established that the star Bill Peters did not understand the KHL hockey, was the crushing defeat in St. Petersburg – 7: 2. Youth SKA and Andrey Kuzmenko made fun of the Ural team, and Kuzmenko gave the most derisive goal of the entire season.
What does the sports director of the Urals residents Oleg Gross do in this situation? He is looking for another expensive reinforcement, which has become the king of lacrosse goals, Sergey Shumakov. In addition, Gross needs to do something with the heavy contracts of Jeff Plat and Dan Sexton, whom he himself invited, but they turned out to be not fighters.It is unlikely that anyone today will covet such costly but ineffective assets.
In the meantime, of all the expensive roster on the ice, it seems that only veteran Pavel Datsyuk is fighting. In his opinion, the whole point is that people are now better tuned in to Avtomobilist.
– Nine defeats in a row do not have one reason. We relaxed somewhat after winning streaks. They began to tune in on us better, we are playing against the best teams in the league now. They began to score a little, and confidence was gone, – said the captain after the ninth defeat.
If the wonderful St.Louis scenario of 2019 does not take place in Yekaterinburg (which is very unlikely), then Yekaterinburg fans will once again have to forget about the claims to the main trophy and the ambitions of a big club, which they have been cherishing for three seasons after the arrival of UMMC.
Severstal became interested in a free asset and took the Canadian, but he flatly refuses to sign a contract with the new club. Photo: dinamoriga.lv
Kidok of the Week: Mitchell Bred Severstal to Eureka?
A legionnaire scandal broke out last week.
First, Dinamo Riga (read Peteris Skudra) decided to include forward Zach Mitchell in the list of refusals. Severstal became interested in a free asset and took the Canadian, but he flatly refuses to sign a contract with the new club.
The next day, Severstal’s mentor added fuel to the fire through his Instagram: “Imagine the situation: Stremwall, exchanged to SKA, did not want to go to St. Petersburg and did not re-sign the existing contract. What would happen to this hockey player and his agent who wants to knock more money out of the club? Zach Mitchell and his agent Alyosha Pilko are doing just that with Severstal.I hope the KHL will not only disqualify both of them, but also punish them with a ruble. ”
The agent said in a comment to Sport24: “Mitchell does not have a Russian work visa. He cannot play for Severstal on the visa that he has now. Moreover, he cannot even enter Russia. To do this, you need to notify 10 days before entry When the club draws up all the necessary documents for it, then we’ll talk. ”
Later, new details of the disagreement between the club and the hockey player’s side surfaced.According to some version, the player simply did not want to receive a salary in rubles.
– Mitchell has a visa – he once flew to Russia with Dynamo Riga. Therefore, he can get into our country. The player does not get in touch, the agent speaks for him. As I understand it, their position is to make as much money as possible and sign a more profitable contract. That is, the essence of the conflict, most likely, is precisely in this – the currency of the contract. Latvia is abroad, and Cherepovets is Russia. We cannot write a contract in euros, as it was done with Dynamo.We signed a contract at the ruble exchange rate, – explained Nikolay Kanakov, director of Severstal, to Sport-Express.
If the version is confirmed, the Kontinental Hockey League is simply obliged to side with the Russian club, disqualify the player (and possibly even ban him from playing in the KHL, as they do in the NHL in case of serious violations) and revoke Pilko’s license to work in the KHL.
Gagarin Cup winner Artem Chernov left
A tragic event happened last week for the Russian hockey team.On December 11, at the age of 38, the Gagarin Cup winner with Dynamo Artem Chernov passed away. According to one version, the consequences of the postponed coronavirus provoked heart problems in him.
Svetlana Koltsova, the wife of the former defender of Salavat Kirill Koltsov, announced the death of the hockey player on Instagram.
The pupil of “Forge” was another “diamond” of the Novokuznetsk hockey school, which required cutting, but never fully revealed its potential.Considered one of Russia’s most talented players in the early 2000s, he was picked by Dallas in the 2000 NHL draft in the fifth round. But drugs intervened in the life and career of a hockey player.
Chernov finished his career in the spring with his own “Forge” in the VHL and planned to become a children’s coach. He even had negotiations with the leadership of the Salavat Yulaev school. Artem was no longer destined to work in a new role.
Eric Dobrolyubov
SportsHockey BashkortostanTatarstan
90,000 Right to death
Alexander Genis: Introducing a new essay from the series “The Extraordinary Americans of Vladimir Morozov,” I want to emphasize the unique role of this author in the ACh team.Morozov possesses a rare gift that allows him to inspire confidence in any interlocutor in order to talk on the most acute, and often very painful topics. An example is a conversation with the hero of today’s program, 75-year-old widower Gary Knisely.
Vladimir Morozov: They say that here, on Park Avenue, is the most expensive real estate in the world. At the intersection of 81st Street, there are two doormen at the entrance of a skyscraper. When I arrive at the 14th floor, Gary Knisely is already waiting for me. We sit down at a spacious table and I take out a tape recorder.
Gary, tell me why are you so brave? You didn’t ask me for a reporter’s ID, you didn’t know me, invited me to your house?
Gary Kniseley: I was once asked this question by my friends. The fact is that I have a positive attitude towards people. I got used to trust them. This attitude has not let me down yet. And I will stay that way.
Vladimir Morozov: But you worked as a “headhunter” on behalf of various companies, recruiting high-class specialists for them.That is, you, so to speak, studied human nature …
Gary Kniseley: No, I wouldn’t say that. I just got paid to look for managers for Walt Disney, for large banks, for pharmaceutical companies. I had my own firm – Johnson, Smith & Nisely, six offices. For example, we were asked to find the head of the sales department or the economic department. And I was looking. That is, I did not study human nature, but I had what is called flair.
Vladimir Morozov: It is clear that your applicants tried to make the best impression on you, which, of course, you did not always trust?
Gary Kniseley: One day a nice guy named Cohn came to see me. He was a great candidate. Harvard Business School, formerly a prestigious college in Maryland. In addition, the guy looked great – an open face, a disposing smile. But something told me – check him again.I called the personnel officer at the college, it turned out to be a nice woman who remembered the candidate and had the highest opinion of his business qualities. In addition, she praised his athletic performance. She said that he was an excellent lacrosse player, although he was nothing at all tall – somewhere a little over sixty meters. And my challenger is over a meter ninety. The matter is clear – for some reason the candidate pretended to be someone else … That is, I trust people, but I check them.
Vladimir Morozov: A vast apartment, huge windows, paintings on the walls.Shelves of books, of which a large-format series stands out with its golden covers – Plato, Aristotle, Plutarch, Heraclitus, Pythagoras and other ancient philosophers.
“These are my wife’s books,” Gary says. “Usually, if Varian didn’t cook, she read. She had two thousand cookbooks alone.
Vladimir Morozov: Varian had enough time for tennis and travel. The last thing she and her husband planned to do was to Switzerland.
Gary Kniseley: We were going to go to Switzerland… to die. Euthanasia and suicide with the help of doctors have long been allowed there. Here in America it is more often called “death with dignity” or “the right to die.” Varian and I naively thought about such an end, when we would hit somewhere around 95. Everything happened much earlier. In May 2010, we were driving around France in the Nice area, where we had a house then, and suddenly Varian lost the ability to speak coherently. Although she is a brilliantly educated woman, she is an excellent talker. She worked for Forbes magazine, deputy president of the Sotheby’s auction house.But then the speech completely left her for 15 seconds. We went to a neurologist, and he said that she had a brain tumor in the 4th stage. We returned to America for treatment.
Vladimir Morozov: We went around a bunch of doctors who, apologizing, popularly explained to us that it was too late to be treated. And then Varian made her first suicide attempt with an overdose of sleeping pills.
– Gary, were you trying to talk her out of it?
Gary Kniseley: I … well, I never tried to convince her of anything.First, the brain cancer was in its final stages. Varian was losing her strength more and more, she could hardly walk anymore. She was doomed to a painful death and did not want to delay. And she, you know, had a very firm, even tough character. And for 42 years of life together, she taught me to accept her for who she is. “I want to do it my own way!” – such words meant that my advice was unnecessary and not welcome.
Vladimir Morozov: Sorry, Gary, do you want to convince me that in 42 years of living together, you and your wife have never quarreled?
Gary Kniseley: No, it never happened.Sometimes I half-jokingly told her, let’s have a fight at least once. Well, break a couple of plates. However, this never happened. We talked about everything, all controversial issues were resolved peacefully. Are you fighting with your wife over politics? Well, that’s only because you vote for different parties. And we both supported the Democratic Party. Although in their youth they started out as Republicans. But then they began to vote for the Democrats.
Vladimir Morozov: Varian Nisely’s first suicide attempt was interrupted by the staff of the hospice, a hospital for the incurable, who were caring for Varian.It so happened that they stopped by to check on Nisely shortly after she took a lethal dose of sleeping pills. She was immediately called an ambulance, pumped out and sent for examination to a psychiatrist. But she just dismissed him: “I’m out of my mind and I’m not going to die for six months, I want to do it now.”
Gary, have you discussed the possibility of going to other states of America for this, where suicide with the help of doctors is allowed?
Gary Kniseley: None. Because by that time Varian was already having difficulty moving around the apartment.There is no time for travel. And most importantly, she wanted to die at home. We had enough medication so that Varian could die quickly and without unnecessary agony. Although in this case she brought her end closer by simply refusing to eat and drink. So it never crossed our minds to go somewhere.
Vladimir Morozov: Her second suicide attempt was more successful. Varian died in 2011. She was 68 years old.
Gary Kniseley: The first time after my wife died, I found myself embroiled in a protracted argument with the hospice.With this hospital for hopeless patients. After all, to call a spade a spade, the hospital deceived us. They promised that they would allow Varion to die, but when it came down to it, they called the ambulance, and Varion – against her will – was literally dragged out of the other world.
Euthanasia is only a beautiful word, but in fact, God forbid you to experience such a thing. So my lawyer and I spent several months trying to get the hospice to change its policy. So that other patients in the hospice do not have to worry about what happened to Varian.For the hospital to notify its patients in advance in writing that its administration does not support a person’s right to euthanasia.
Vladimir Morozov: Gary, you are 75 now, but you can see from your walk that you do a lot of sports. What kinds? And also … sorry for a personal question, did you get married again?
Gary Kniseley: I played a lot of squash, now I play tennis, and I also go to the gym a couple of times a week. I have not married, but I am thinking about it.Yes, during the time that I was a widower, I had two girlfriends. But this time the relationship is more serious. We’re going to get married, we’re engaged. The wedding date has already been set – August 3, 2018.
Vladimir Morozov: I wish good luck to the young newlyweds!
(Laughter)
Vladimir Morozov: And then I remembered the story of another couple. A close friend of mine has lived with his wife for almost a hundred years, their children are over 60. And then she had Alzheimer’s disease and all body systems began to fail one after another.And this went on for quite a long time. My friend fell into a severe depression. He had a hunting rifle, which, however, he never used. And then somehow, over a glass of wine, he shared with me his plan – to shoot his wife and shoot himself. At the same time he asked me – here you are a hunter, tell me how to shoot yourself with a gun. I knew this well, and not only from books, but from a detailed account of a failed suicide. I myself, so to speak, are theoretically in favor of euthanasia. But teach someone how to commit suicide! And then live with the knowledge that a person has done this on my advice… Sorry, I replied, I can not give advice.
It’s much easier to ask.
– Gary, now another personal question. My wife and I are approaching the turn of 80 years. What would you advise us if, God forbid, a situation similar to yours arises? An incurable disease …
Gary Kniseley: I don’t know. My wife’s case was 7 years ago. Laws and regulations are changing. Contact either a knowledgeable lawyer or a New York-based organization called End of Life Choices that works to ensure that people are entitled to die in extreme cases.
Continue Reading
the Trondheim Hip Fracture Trial—a randomised controlled trial
walk without walking aids. Nevertheless, we believe we have
accounted for the most influential causes of bias, and if any
should remain, rather underestimated than overestimated the
treatment effect.
Conclusion
This randomised controlled trial demonstrates that CGC in-
cluding a team-based, structured and individualised approach
to mobilisation, resulted in better gait control, gait efficiency
and self-reported mobility as long as 1 year following the
fracture. These results underscore the close association of
health and gait functions and raise important issues
concerning how to maximise gait recovery after hip fracture.
Targeting the frailty of these patients in a very early stage
seems to reduce the initial decline in gait function and perhaps
make them more susceptible to rehabilitation and exercise at a
later stage. Further research is needed to evaluate the added
effect of exercises programmes designed to target gait control
specifically.
Acknowledgments We thank the patients and their relatives for their
participation, the staff at the wards for collaboration, our taxi driver and
the GEMS research group for their contribution to the completion of the
trial.
Conflicts of interest None.
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Osteoporos Int
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90,000 Putin said that a strong Russia needs a powerful navy – Army and defense industry
KUBINKA / Moscow region /, 23 August. / TASS /. A strong and sovereign Russia needs a powerful, balanced navy. This was announced on Monday by Russian President Vladimir Putin at the ceremony of laying down new warships and submarines for the Navy, which is being held via videoconference.
“I have said more than once and I want to repeat again: a strong, sovereign Russia needs a powerful, balanced navy.Today it plays a key role in the system of ensuring the security of the state, reliably protects our national interests, makes a significant contribution to strengthening strategic parity and international stability, “the head of state stated.
Opening the ceremony, he congratulated all Russian shipbuilders and sailors on the “new important stage in the development of the country’s navy”. “Today, two multipurpose ships of the near sea zone are being laid in Komsomolsk-on-Amur.And at Sevmash and at the Admiralty Shipyards there are four submarines of the far sea zone, “the president listed.
Putin noted that the Russian authorities cherish the “glorious traditions of the Russian fleet” and strengthen the continuity of the country’s indissoluble thousand-year history. “Therefore, two new nuclear powered submarines will bear the names of Dmitry Donskoy and Prince Potemkin as a sign of deep respect for the memory and deeds of our outstanding ancestors,” he explained.
Two large diesel submarines were named after Mozhaisk and Yakutsk.”And two multipurpose ships have been given the names traditional for the Russian fleet:” Grozny and “Buiny”, – added the head of state.
He separately noted that all ships will be equipped with modern precision weapons, the latest control and communications equipment. The effectiveness of most of them has been confirmed during combat missions in Syria, Putin said.
Development Prospects
The Russian authorities intend to further develop the country’s naval potential, equip the fleet with the latest weapons and equipment.
“We will continue to develop the naval potential of Russia, improve the basing system and fleet infrastructure, equip ships with the latest weapons and equipment, work out complex combat training tasks in exercises and on long sea voyages, demonstrate the Russian flag in strategically important areas of the world ocean “, – said Putin.
Such important and large-scale tasks, Putin continued, are due to the geopolitical position of Russia, its role in world affairs.At the same time, the construction of a high-tech, combat-ready navy places increased demands on domestic shipbuilders, the president emphasized.
As part of the ceremony, which took place via videoconference, the head of state got in touch from Kubinka near Moscow, where the Army-2021 forum opened in the Patriot park.
90,000 In China, the development of the Russian Navy was called a “formidable signal” to the West – Rossiyskaya Gazeta
Starting in 2014, NATO forces, taking advantage of their dominant position in the Atlantic region, began to conduct more naval exercises near Russian territorial waters and conduct reconnaissance in the Mediterranean and Black seas.This puts pressure on the RF. The latter, in response, adopted a “naval doctrine” that provides for support for a presence in the Atlantic, the Baltic, and the Black, Azov and Mediterranean seas. The document also defines the tasks of the five fleets.
– Russia is taking serious steps to accelerate the development of the navy. Even in the face of the global economic downturn due to the coronavirus pandemic, the country continues to build new ships, wishing to bring the fleet to a new level, – noted in the translation of the material published by Inosmi.
Only in recent months, literally one after another, Russia has got new ships. In early May, the Kazan multipurpose nuclear submarine of the Yasen-M project, which can carry the Zircon hypersonic missiles, was put into service. A month later, another submarine of this type, the Novosibirsk, went to sea for testing. On May 31, the strategic submarine “Prince Oleg” of the “Borey” project, capable of launching intercontinental ballistic missiles “Bulava” from under water, was also transferred for testing.On June 25, the strategic nuclear submarine Belgorod, which carries the Poseidon unmanned underwater vehicles, began testing. Recently, tests of the Varshavyanka project diesel-electric submarine Magadan, carrying Kalibr-PL cruise missiles, were completed.
According to plans, in the next decade the Russian navy will receive over a dozen new submarine and surface ships of various types. In addition, vessels already in service will be modernized.
In addition, Russia regularly conducts naval exercises in response to security threats at sea.Combat ships of various classes, equipped with innovative weapons, and a large number of aircraft take part in them.
– The plans for the development of the Russian Navy can be called ambitious and specific. It can be said that the Russian navy continues to build up its power, not only repelling the West, but also demonstrating a firm resolve to be reborn. Although there are problems on the path of revival that need to be overcome, the prospect of returning Russia to the status of a naval power deserves attention, the author sums up.
Photo: parade in honor of the Day of the Russian Navy
Photo author, AFP
On Sunday, the main parade in honor of the Day of the Russian Navy was held in St. Petersburg and Kronstadt. It was attended by 54 different ships, 48 aircraft and helicopters and about 4 thousand military personnel.
The ships of the naval forces of India, Iran and Pakistan also passed along the Kronstadt raid.
Photo author, Alexander Demianchuk / TASS
Due to the increase in the incidence of coronavirus in St. Petersburg, the parade was supposed to be held without spectators.The city authorities asked residents to watch it on TV, but Petersburgers gathered en masse at the fences restricting access to the Neva, and the police had to let them go to the embankments, Fontanka writes.
The parade was hosted by Russian President Vladimir Putin. He was accompanied by the Commander-in-Chief of the Navy, Admiral Nikolai Evmenov, and Defense Minister Sergei Shoigu.
Photo by Alexei Nikolsky / TASS
The Russian Navy celebrates 325 years since its foundation.
The newest nuclear-powered submarine “Knyaz Vladimir” (project “Borey-A”), which was accepted into the Northern Fleet last year, took part in the main parade in St. Petersburg.
Photo author, AFP
Festive events were also held near all major bases of the Russian fleet, including in the annexed Sevastopol and in the roadstead of the Syrian port of Tartus.
Photo author, Sergei Malgavko / TASS
The Ministry of Defense reports that all servicemen participating in the parades were fully vaccinated against the coronavirus with Sputnik-V.
Photo author, Alexander Demianchuk / TASS
The administration of St. Petersburg on the eve of the holiday distributed a video message from the chief sanitary doctor of the city Natalya Bashketova with a request to watch the parade on TV due to the increase in the number of Covid-19 infections in the city.
Photo author, Sergei Fadeichev / TASS
Poltava, a replica of the first Russian battleship, recreated according to archival drawings, once again took part in the parade in St. Petersburg. According to historians, Emperor Peter I personally participated in its design.
Photo author, Sergei Malgavko \ TASS
Five ships of the Pacific Fleet and two ships of the Vietnamese Navy (pictured) entered the waters of the Golden Horn Bay in Vladivostok.