How do brine channels form in sea ice. What organisms live within these microscopic habitats. Why are brine channels important for Arctic ecosystems. How do changing temperatures affect brine channel dynamics.
The Formation of Sea Ice and Brine Channels
As seawater freezes in the frigid Arctic winter, a fascinating process unfolds beneath the surface. Pure water ice crystals form first, pushing out salt and other impurities. This concentrated saltwater, known as brine, becomes trapped in tiny pockets and channels within the ice structure.
But how exactly do these brine channels develop? As temperatures plummet, several key steps occur:
- Freshwater ice crystals begin to form
- Salt and impurities are expelled from the ice crystal structure
- Concentrated brine collects in small pockets between ice crystals
- Brine pockets connect to form intricate channel networks
- Channels shrink and salt concentrations increase as temperatures drop further
The resulting brine channels create a unique microscopic habitat within the sea ice, playing a crucial role in Arctic marine ecosystems.
The Microscopic World Within Sea Ice
Despite the harsh, freezing conditions, brine channels in sea ice are teeming with life. A diverse community of microorganisms becomes trapped in these channels as the ice forms, creating a hidden ecosystem.
What types of organisms inhabit these microscopic channels? The brine channel community includes:
- Bacteria
- Algae (especially diatoms)
- Protists
- Viruses
- Small invertebrates (e.g. copepods, nematodes)
These organisms have adapted to survive in the extreme conditions of high salinity and sub-zero temperatures found within brine channels. Many enter a dormant state during the dark winter months, conserving energy until the return of sunlight in spring.
Algal Blooms in Brine Channels
Of particular importance are the photosynthetic algae that inhabit brine channels. As spring arrives and sunlight penetrates the ice, these algae experience a period of rapid growth and reproduction. This phenomenon, known as an ice algal bloom, forms the base of the Arctic marine food web.
How do algae survive the harsh Arctic winter? Many species of ice algae have developed specialized adaptations:
- Production of antifreeze proteins
- Adjustment of cellular membranes for cold temperatures
- Ability to photosynthesize in extremely low light conditions
- Formation of resting spores to survive winter darkness
These adaptations allow ice algae to thrive in the unique brine channel environment, supporting the broader Arctic ecosystem.
The Dynamics of Brine Channels Through the Seasons
Brine channels are not static features within sea ice. Instead, they undergo dramatic changes throughout the year as temperatures fluctuate. Understanding these seasonal dynamics is crucial for grasping the role of brine channels in Arctic ecosystems.
Winter: Contraction and Concentration
As winter sets in and temperatures plummet, what happens to brine channels? Several key changes occur:
- Channels become smaller as surrounding ice contracts
- Salt concentrations in the brine increase dramatically
- Many organisms enter dormant states to survive
- Channels may become isolated from one another
These winter conditions create an extremely challenging environment for life, yet many microorganisms persist in a state of suspended animation.
Spring and Summer: Expansion and Connectivity
With the return of warmer temperatures, brine channels undergo a transformation:
- Channels expand as surrounding ice melts
- Salt concentrations decrease
- Channels reconnect, forming extensive networks
- Dormant organisms become active again
- Algal blooms occur as sunlight penetrates the ice
This spring awakening turns brine channels into hubs of biological activity, supporting a burst of productivity in the Arctic marine ecosystem.
The Ecological Importance of Brine Channels
Far from being merely a quirk of sea ice formation, brine channels play a vital role in Arctic marine ecosystems. Their importance extends far beyond the microscopic organisms that inhabit them.
Primary Production in Ice-Covered Seas
How do brine channels contribute to Arctic marine productivity? They serve as a crucial habitat for ice algae, which are responsible for a significant portion of primary production in ice-covered polar seas. This algal growth provides an essential food source for many Arctic organisms, especially during the early spring when other food sources are scarce.
Nutrient Cycling and Exchange
Brine channels facilitate the exchange of nutrients between the ocean and the sea ice. As brine drains from the ice, it carries nutrients that support algal growth. Conversely, as algae in brine channels photosynthesize and grow, they take up nutrients and produce oxygen, influencing the chemistry of the surrounding ice and water.
Habitat for Microorganisms
The intricate network of brine channels provides a protected habitat for a diverse community of microorganisms. This microscopic ecosystem supports biodiversity and contributes to the overall health and functioning of Arctic marine environments.
Food Web Connections
Organisms living in brine channels form the base of the Arctic marine food web. Algae and bacteria in these channels are consumed by small invertebrates, which in turn become prey for larger animals. This connection extends all the way up to large predators like seals and polar bears.
Climate Change and the Future of Brine Channels
As the Arctic warms at an unprecedented rate due to climate change, the future of sea ice and its brine channels hangs in the balance. These changes have far-reaching implications for Arctic ecosystems and global climate patterns.
Reduction in Sea Ice Extent and Thickness
How does declining sea ice affect brine channel habitats? As sea ice becomes thinner and less extensive, the total volume of brine channel habitat decreases. This reduction can have cascading effects on the organisms that rely on these unique environments.
Changes in Ice Formation Patterns
Climate change is altering the timing and patterns of sea ice formation. This can disrupt the normal seasonal cycles of brine channel dynamics, potentially affecting the timing of algal blooms and other critical ecological processes.
Impacts on Arctic Food Webs
As brine channel habitats change or diminish, what are the consequences for Arctic food webs? The reduction in ice algae productivity could have far-reaching effects, potentially leading to declines in populations of organisms that depend on this food source.
Feedback Loops and Global Climate
Changes in sea ice and brine channel dynamics can create feedback loops that further accelerate warming. For example, reduced algal growth in brine channels may lead to less carbon dioxide uptake, potentially amplifying the greenhouse effect.
Research and Exploration of Brine Channels
The study of brine channels presents unique challenges due to their microscopic nature and the harsh Arctic environment. However, scientists have developed innovative techniques to explore these hidden habitats.
Sampling and Observation Techniques
How do researchers study the microscopic world of brine channels? Several methods are employed:
- Ice core sampling and analysis
- In situ microscopy
- Remote sensing technologies
- Underwater vehicles equipped with specialized sensors
These techniques allow scientists to observe brine channel structure, measure chemical properties, and study the organisms living within them.
Laboratory Simulations
To complement field studies, researchers also use laboratory simulations to study brine channels under controlled conditions. These experiments allow for detailed observations of brine channel formation and the behavior of microorganisms within them.
Interdisciplinary Approaches
The study of brine channels brings together experts from various fields, including:
- Marine biology
- Glaciology
- Oceanography
- Climate science
- Microbiology
This interdisciplinary approach is crucial for understanding the complex interactions between physical processes and biological systems in Arctic environments.
The Broader Significance of Brine Channel Research
While brine channels may seem like a niche topic, research in this area has far-reaching implications that extend beyond Arctic ecosystems.
Climate Modeling and Predictions
Understanding brine channel dynamics is crucial for improving climate models and predictions. The role of sea ice in global climate systems is significant, and accurately representing the processes occurring within brine channels can enhance our ability to forecast future climate scenarios.
Biotechnology and Extremophile Research
The organisms that inhabit brine channels have evolved to survive in extreme conditions. Studying these adaptations can lead to discoveries in biotechnology, potentially yielding new enzymes or compounds with industrial or medical applications.
Astrobiology and the Search for Extraterrestrial Life
Brine channels in sea ice serve as analogues for potential habitats on other planets and moons. By studying life in these extreme environments on Earth, scientists can gain insights into the potential for life elsewhere in the universe, particularly on icy worlds like Europa or Enceladus.
Conservation and Environmental Management
Research on brine channels contributes to our understanding of Arctic ecosystems and their vulnerability to climate change. This knowledge is essential for developing effective conservation strategies and environmental management policies for polar regions.
In conclusion, the study of brine channels in sea ice reveals a hidden world of microscopic life and complex physical processes. From supporting Arctic food webs to influencing global climate patterns, these tiny habitats play an outsized role in our planet’s ecosystems. As climate change continues to reshape the Arctic, understanding brine channels becomes increasingly crucial for predicting and mitigating the impacts on polar environments and beyond.
Brine Channels | Ask A Biologist
show/hide words to know
Algae: eukaryotic organisms (ones that have membrane-enclosed cell parts) that live in fresh and salt water. They can be free floating or attached to a surface….more
Dissolve: to become part of a liquid.
Hibernate: the act of sleeping through the cold winter months, like some animals do to survive the winter… more
Ion: an atom or molecule that does not have the same number of electrons as it has protons. This gives the atom or molecule a negative or positive charge… more
The Start of Sea Ice
The molecular structure of water. Click on the image for more information.
Living in areas that freeze can make for dangerous mornings. You hold your arms out for balance as you walk out the door, taking each step carefully so you don’t slip on hidden ice. One way that people deal with icy walk ways is by pouring salt on the ice to make it melt. Salt isn’t warm, so how exactly is the salt affecting the ice?
Salt does something special to the water in which it dissolves. It reduces the temperature at which the water freezes.
Early spring (top) and late spring (bottom) in the Arctic.
In the polar regions such as the Arctic, sea water does freeze in the winter, and then melts again in the late spring and summer. This is because the temperatures drops so much that even the loads of salt in the sea can’t prevent the water from freezing.
Even in the summer there is still ice in the polar regions because the temperatures remain very cold. The ice in the central regions of the Arctic around the North Pole is made up of several years’ worth of ice growth (we call that multi-year ice).
Bring Out Your Brine
Fresh and salt water cores compared. Can you guess which is which? Click on the image for more information.
When sea ice forms, freshwater ice is formed first, leaving behind droplets of salty liquid called brine.
This brine can get trapped in pockets or channels in the ice. Microscopic organisms in the water get trapped in the brine.
As the temperatures continue to decrease, the pockets of brine become smaller and smaller and the concentration of salt increases. These brine pockets never completely freeze because they have such a high concentration of salt.
In the spring when temperatures start to increase again, the exact opposite happens in these brine pockets. They begin to expand again because the ice around it melts and the pockets merge with other pockets and form long networks of channels in the ice. These channels are the living space (habitat) for the microscopic organisms that were trapped in the ice in the fall.
Winter (left) and spring (right) brine channels. Click on the image for more information.
Brine Channels Brim with Life
Whatever is in the water column during the fall might get trapped in the ice when the sea water forms. This includes any plankton (sea drifters), from bacteria to photosynthetic algae to worms and larvae.
Larger grazers such as the planktonic crustaceans (like copepods) will likely not be found inside the ice unless they swim into the brine channels in search of food. Mostly they will be under the ice in the water, picking algae from the bottom of the ice.
Color at the bottom ice core indicate algae living within the brine channels.
Photosynthetic algae are some of the plankton that become trapped in the ice during the fall. However, to make it through the winter with no light they enter a dormant or resting stage throughout the winter. This allows them to live but with low energy requirements (much like the polar bears hibernating above the ice). As soon as light becomes available for these organisms they “wake up” and start to grow again.
Life Under the Ice
The light from above must not only penetrate the clouds but then must pass through the snow and the ice to reach the organisms. This means the algae living in the ice have to deal with really dim light.
But still they grow best in the lowest ice zone, where the ice meets the nutrient-rich open water. While this is the zone of the dimmest light, this is where they also get most of the nutrients needed for growth.
To see what it’s like for the plankton under the ice, watch the video below.
This section of Ask A Biologist was funded by NSF Office of Polar Programs Grant Award number 1023140 as a part of Susanne Neuer’s research.
Read more about: Frozen Life
Brine channels, micro-habitat for ice algae
Science at Camp
admin Leave a comment
During the formation of sea ice, small spaces remain between the ice crystals and are filled with a salty liquid, known as brines.
These brines are trapped in pockets or channels in sea ice (Figure 1).
Figure 1: Sea ice structure with ice crystals and brine channels. Issued from Cryospheric Sciences.
When temperature decreases during winter, the size of brine channels/pockets reduces while the salinity of brine increases and prevents their freezing. During the formation of sea ice, numerous micro-organisms (bacteria, virus, larvae, worms and micro-algae) living in the water column were trapped and started to live in theses brine channels, rich in nutrients.
During spring, when the temperature starts to increase, the brine channels expand. With the increase of temperature, sea ice starts to melt and thereafter the brine pockets and the channels start to be inter-connected through the entire ice core (Figure 2).
Figure 2: Brine channels evolution from winter to spring. Issued from: ASU School of Life Sciences
At that time, ice algae are mostly concentrated at the bottom of sea ice to have access to the nutrient in the water column but they can also migrate through the channels in the ice if they need more sunlight (Figure 3).
Figure 3: Pictures of ice algae at the bottom of sea ice (left) and migration of ice algae in the ice core (right) as shown by the difference of color on the five first centimetres. Credit: Virginie Galindo
Meanwhile, larger grazers like copepods and amphipods come to the bottom of sea ice to graze some ice algae but they can also swim through the brine channels to find some food.
During Green Edge ice camp, the scientists measured the salinity and temperature on two complete ice cores every two days. With these parameters, they can estimate the brine volume and determine the periods of brine flushing associated with a decrease of salinity in the entire ice core. As shown on Figure 4, the salinity in the ice core decreased between 13 and 20 May, but mostly after the 13 June. The first decrease of salinity could be associated with a short drainage of brines, while the major decrease of salinity at the surface after 13 June is associated with the complete melt of the snow cover.
Figure 4. Time series of salinity profiles in the sea ice cores during the Green Edge ice camp 2016.
In fact, during the snow melt period, the melted snow penetrates the ice through the channels and flush most of the micro-organisms in the underlying water column. So the complete flushing of sea ice algae seems to be right now on the ice camp of Green Edge! This flushing of snow melt associated with the release of ice algae in the water column could seed the phytoplankton bloom underneath the ice. Should we observe the beginning of the phytoplankton bloom soon?
Virginie Galindo
Arctic OceanGreen EdgeGreen Edge TeamIce campPhytoplanktonPhytoplankton spring bloomSampling workScience at camptop
To understand the dynamics of the phytoplankton spring bloom and determine its role in the Arctic Ocean of tomorrow, including for human populations.
Salt lamps: what is the use?
Salt and salt lamps are different names for the same device.
Salt lamps are made from natural rock salt mined from the Himalayan mountains in Pakistan. The salt lamp looks like a ceiling carved from a natural mineral, equipped with a switch, a light bulb and a stand. The lamp works from the usual socket. Salt in a cold state has the ability to absorb moisture from the air, and when heated, it releases moisture.
Salt lamps are a natural air ionizer, a small salt spa at home. Using them indoors (apartment or office) is equivalent to being in a salt cave. Especially useful for those who are often sick.
BENEFIT AND HARM OF A SALT LAMP
The benefits of a salt lamp:
- cleans the air from dust and bacteria,
- maintains optimal humidity in the room,
- regular breathing with salt ions promotes the treatment of respiratory organs, allergies, skin diseases,
- provides prevention for asthma, dermatitis, diabetes, allergies, sinusitis, rheumatism, colds,
- relieves migraine headaches,
- strengthens the immune system and reduces vulnerability to colds and flu,
- improves sleep, mood and metabolism,
- neutralizes unpleasant odors in rooms
There are no contraindications to the use of a salt lamp, because it is made of natural materials.
An exception can be considered individual intolerance, which is extremely rare.
SELECTION CRITERIA FOR SALT LAMPS
- Salt lamp weight
The required weight of the salt lamp is taken from the calculation: 1 kg of salt per 3-4 square meters of the room. For example, a salt lamp of 3-5 kg is suitable for a room of 12 square meters. But you can always take several lamps of 1-2 kg at once.
- Form
Salt lamps come in many forms. You can choose any that you like best and suitable for your interior. The shape does not affect the quality of the product.
Natural Form The is the most popular type of salt lamp and is a piece of rock from which it was mined (they are usually referred to as “The Rock”). Most lamps do not go through additional cutting after being mined.
Artificial shape is a special shape in the form of a pyramid, ball or other shape.
HOW TO USE THE SALT LAMP
The salt lamp can be installed anywhere in the apartment or office space.
The best place is where you spend the most time.
Salt lamps are recommended to be installed:
- near appliances and household appliances (computers, TVs, etc.) to neutralize electromagnetic radiation,
- in the children’s room to strengthen the child’s immunity,
- in the bedroom for sound and healthy sleep,
- in the living room for relaxation and good rest of all family members
After purchase, unpack and keep the salt lamp unplugged for about 2 hours to dry naturally. At first, turn on the lamp for no more than 1 hour a day. After an adaptation period of 5-6 days, you can gradually increase the operating time up to 4-8 hours. It is allowed to turn on the device both during the day and at night.
It is not recommended to install the device near open windows and moisture sources such as decorative fountains and aquariums.
For safety reasons, the switched on lamp must not be covered.
WHERE TO BUY A SALT LAMP
Inspired by the benefits of a salt lamp? We invite you to the network of Salamat orthopedic salons, where a wide range of salt lamps is presented only from trusted suppliers.
IMPORTANT! Buy salt lamps only from specialized stores you trust. A real lamp is always made from only Himalayan pink salt and is never completely cheap. Counterfeits are useless and can harm your family’s health.
The range of salt lamps is presented in the catalog of the Salamat online store, follow this link.
Salt lamp is a beautiful and useful gift for your loved ones on any occasion and for any event.
With care for your family, the network of orthopedic salons “Salamat”.
Salt Riot — date, year, reason, essence, results
In 2023, exactly 375 years will have passed since one of the largest uprisings in the history of Russia — the Salt Riot. This rebellion, striking in its numbers, was a reflection of the social and economic problems of the 17th century. The boyars and the authorities felt the anger of the people, the rebellion came to many large cities. What caused the popular unrest and how the uprising ended – read in the Izvestia article.
Causes of the Salt Riot
The monetary policy of the state became the ground for discontent. In particular, food prices were strongly influenced by customs duties on the import of salt into Russia. At the same time, salt occupied an important place among the purchases of commoners, as it was the only available preservative.
In addition, the pockets of the peasants were greatly devastated by the tax reforms. The authorities returned previously canceled direct taxes and increased them for the “black settlements”, where the main population were small employees, merchants, artisans and other common people.
How the Salt Riot began
Dissatisfied with the innovations, the townspeople decided to petition Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich with a request to assemble the Zemsky Sobor and find justice for the boyars and corrupt officials. On June 1, the sovereign was returning from the Trinity-Sergius Monastery, when the crowd blocked his path and tried to pass a petition.
However, the archers dispersed the peasants, 16 instigators were arrested.
Events of the Salt Riot
A desperate crowd began to riot. The commoners sacked the houses of the boyars, and the enraged people moved towards the Kremlin. The basis of the crowd were small merchants, artisans. Some dissatisfied nobles and even archers who sided with the people joined the procession.
Protesters set fire to entire neighborhoods and longed for reprisals against the boyars. The rebels brutally murdered Leonty Pleshcheev, the head of the Zemsky department, and executed the head of the Ambassadorial office, Nazariy Pure. The same fate soon befell the head of the Pushkar order, Peter Trakhaniotov.
Only Boris Morozov, the tsar’s favorite, escaped the massacre. The ruler himself promised to remove him from all affairs and exile him to the Kirillo-Belozersky monastery, which was done on the night of June 11-12.
Salt riot – the results of the uprising
The rebellion lasted about 10 days – by June 11, most of the centers of the uprising were liquidated.
