Brine Channels | Ask A Biologist
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The Start of Sea Ice
The molecular structure of water. Click on the image for more information.
Living in areas that freeze can make for dangerous mornings. You hold your arms out for balance as you walk out the door, taking each step carefully so you don’t slip on hidden ice. One way that people deal with icy walk ways is by pouring salt on the ice to make it melt.
Salt isn’t warm, so how exactly is the salt affecting the ice?
Salt does something special to the water in which it dissolves. It reduces the temperature at which the water freezes.
Early spring (top) and late spring (bottom) in the Arctic.
In the polar regions such as the Arctic, sea water does freeze in the winter, and then melts again in the late spring and summer. This is because the temperatures drops so much that even the loads of salt in the sea can’t prevent the water from freezing.
Even in the summer there is still ice in the polar regions because the temperatures remain very cold. The ice in the central regions of the Arctic around the North Pole is made up of several years’ worth of ice growth (we call that multi-year ice).
Bring Out Your Brine
Fresh and salt water cores compared. Can you guess which is which? Click on the image for more information.
When sea ice forms, freshwater ice is formed first, leaving behind droplets of salty liquid called brine.
This brine can get trapped in pockets or channels in the ice. Microscopic organisms in the water get trapped in the brine.
As the temperatures continue to decrease, the pockets of brine become smaller and smaller and the concentration of salt increases. These brine pockets never completely freeze because they have such a high concentration of salt.
In the spring when temperatures start to increase again, the exact opposite happens in these brine pockets. They begin to expand again because the ice around it melts and the pockets merge with other pockets and form long networks of channels in the ice. These channels are the living space (habitat) for the microscopic organisms that were trapped in the ice in the fall.
Winter (left) and spring (right) brine channels. Click on the image for more information.
Brine Channels Brim with Life
Whatever is in the water column during the fall might get trapped in the ice when the sea water forms. This includes any plankton (sea drifters), from bacteria to photosynthetic algae to worms and larvae.
Larger grazers such as the planktonic crustaceans (like copepods) will likely not be found inside the ice unless they swim into the brine channels in search of food. Mostly they will be under the ice in the water, picking algae from the bottom of the ice.
Color at the bottom ice core indicate algae living within the brine channels.
Photosynthetic algae are some of the plankton that become trapped in the ice during the fall. However, to make it through the winter with no light they enter a dormant or resting stage throughout the winter. This allows them to live but with low energy requirements (much like the polar bears hibernating above the ice). As soon as light becomes available for these organisms they “wake up” and start to grow again.
Life Under the Ice
The light from above must not only penetrate the clouds but then must pass through the snow and the ice to reach the organisms. This means the algae living in the ice have to deal with really dim light.
But still they grow best in the lowest ice zone, where the ice meets the nutrient-rich open water. While this is the zone of the dimmest light, this is where they also get most of the nutrients needed for growth.
To see what it’s like for the plankton under the ice, watch the video below.
This section of Ask A Biologist was funded by NSF Office of Polar Programs Grant Award number 1023140 as a part of Susanne Neuer’s research.
Read more about: Frozen Life
Brine channels, micro-habitat for ice algae
Science at Camp
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During the formation of sea ice, small spaces remain between the ice crystals and are filled with a salty liquid, known as brines.
These brines are trapped in pockets or channels in sea ice (Figure 1).
Figure 1: Sea ice structure with ice crystals and brine channels. Issued from Cryospheric Sciences.
When temperature decreases during winter, the size of brine channels/pockets reduces while the salinity of brine increases and prevents their freezing. During the formation of sea ice, numerous micro-organisms (bacteria, virus, larvae, worms and micro-algae) living in the water column were trapped and started to live in theses brine channels, rich in nutrients.
During spring, when the temperature starts to increase, the brine channels expand. With the increase of temperature, sea ice starts to melt and thereafter the brine pockets and the channels start to be inter-connected through the entire ice core (Figure 2).
Figure 2: Brine channels evolution from winter to spring. Issued from: ASU School of Life Sciences
At that time, ice algae are mostly concentrated at the bottom of sea ice to have access to the nutrient in the water column but they can also migrate through the channels in the ice if they need more sunlight (Figure 3).
Figure 3: Pictures of ice algae at the bottom of sea ice (left) and migration of ice algae in the ice core (right) as shown by the difference of color on the five first centimetres. Credit: Virginie Galindo
Meanwhile, larger grazers like copepods and amphipods come to the bottom of sea ice to graze some ice algae but they can also swim through the brine channels to find some food.
During Green Edge ice camp, the scientists measured the salinity and temperature on two complete ice cores every two days. With these parameters, they can estimate the brine volume and determine the periods of brine flushing associated with a decrease of salinity in the entire ice core. As shown on Figure 4, the salinity in the ice core decreased between 13 and 20 May, but mostly after the 13 June. The first decrease of salinity could be associated with a short drainage of brines, while the major decrease of salinity at the surface after 13 June is associated with the complete melt of the snow cover.
Figure 4. Time series of salinity profiles in the sea ice cores during the Green Edge ice camp 2016.
In fact, during the snow melt period, the melted snow penetrates the ice through the channels and flush most of the micro-organisms in the underlying water column. So the complete flushing of sea ice algae seems to be right now on the ice camp of Green Edge! This flushing of snow melt associated with the release of ice algae in the water column could seed the phytoplankton bloom underneath the ice. Should we observe the beginning of the phytoplankton bloom soon?
Virginie Galindo
Arctic OceanGreen EdgeGreen Edge TeamIce campPhytoplanktonPhytoplankton spring bloomSampling workScience at camptop
To understand the dynamics of the phytoplankton spring bloom and determine its role in the Arctic Ocean of tomorrow, including for human populations.
Salt lamps: what is the use?
Salt and salt lamps are different names for the same device.
Salt lamps are made from natural rock salt mined from the Himalayan mountains in Pakistan. The salt lamp looks like a ceiling carved from a natural mineral, equipped with a switch, a light bulb and a stand. The lamp works from the usual socket. Salt in a cold state has the ability to absorb moisture from the air, and when heated, it releases moisture.
Salt lamps are a natural air ionizer, a small salt spa at home. Using them indoors (apartment or office) is equivalent to being in a salt cave. Especially useful for those who are often sick.
BENEFIT AND HARM OF A SALT LAMP
The benefits of a salt lamp:
- cleans the air from dust and bacteria,
- maintains optimal humidity in the room,
- regular breathing with salt ions promotes the treatment of respiratory organs, allergies, skin diseases,
- provides prevention for asthma, dermatitis, diabetes, allergies, sinusitis, rheumatism, colds,
- relieves migraine headaches,
- strengthens the immune system and reduces vulnerability to colds and flu,
- improves sleep, mood and metabolism,
- neutralizes unpleasant odors in rooms
There are no contraindications to the use of a salt lamp, because it is made of natural materials.
An exception can be considered individual intolerance, which is extremely rare.
SELECTION CRITERIA FOR SALT LAMPS
- Salt lamp weight
The required weight of the salt lamp is taken from the calculation: 1 kg of salt per 3-4 square meters of the room. For example, a salt lamp of 3-5 kg is suitable for a room of 12 square meters. But you can always take several lamps of 1-2 kg at once.
- Form
Salt lamps come in many forms. You can choose any that you like best and suitable for your interior. The shape does not affect the quality of the product.
Natural Form The is the most popular type of salt lamp and is a piece of rock from which it was mined (they are usually referred to as “The Rock”). Most lamps do not go through additional cutting after being mined.
Artificial shape is a special shape in the form of a pyramid, ball or other shape.
HOW TO USE THE SALT LAMP
The salt lamp can be installed anywhere in the apartment or office space.
The best place is where you spend the most time.
Salt lamps are recommended to be installed:
- near appliances and household appliances (computers, TVs, etc.) to neutralize electromagnetic radiation,
- in the children’s room to strengthen the child’s immunity,
- in the bedroom for sound and healthy sleep,
- in the living room for relaxation and good rest of all family members
After purchase, unpack and keep the salt lamp unplugged for about 2 hours to dry naturally. At first, turn on the lamp for no more than 1 hour a day. After an adaptation period of 5-6 days, you can gradually increase the operating time up to 4-8 hours. It is allowed to turn on the device both during the day and at night.
It is not recommended to install the device near open windows and moisture sources such as decorative fountains and aquariums.
For safety reasons, the switched on lamp must not be covered.
WHERE TO BUY A SALT LAMP
Inspired by the benefits of a salt lamp? We invite you to the network of Salamat orthopedic salons, where a wide range of salt lamps is presented only from trusted suppliers.
IMPORTANT! Buy salt lamps only from specialized stores you trust. A real lamp is always made from only Himalayan pink salt and is never completely cheap. Counterfeits are useless and can harm your family’s health.
The range of salt lamps is presented in the catalog of the Salamat online store, follow this link.
Salt lamp is a beautiful and useful gift for your loved ones on any occasion and for any event.
With care for your family, the network of orthopedic salons “Salamat”.
Salt Riot — date, year, reason, essence, results
In 2023, exactly 375 years will have passed since one of the largest uprisings in the history of Russia — the Salt Riot. This rebellion, striking in its numbers, was a reflection of the social and economic problems of the 17th century. The boyars and the authorities felt the anger of the people, the rebellion came to many large cities. What caused the popular unrest and how the uprising ended – read in the Izvestia article.
Causes of the Salt Riot
The monetary policy of the state became the ground for discontent. In particular, food prices were strongly influenced by customs duties on the import of salt into Russia. At the same time, salt occupied an important place among the purchases of commoners, as it was the only available preservative.
In addition, the pockets of the peasants were greatly devastated by the tax reforms. The authorities returned previously canceled direct taxes and increased them for the “black settlements”, where the main population were small employees, merchants, artisans and other common people.
How the Salt Riot began
Dissatisfied with the innovations, the townspeople decided to petition Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich with a request to assemble the Zemsky Sobor and find justice for the boyars and corrupt officials. On June 1, the sovereign was returning from the Trinity-Sergius Monastery, when the crowd blocked his path and tried to pass a petition.
However, the archers dispersed the peasants, 16 instigators were arrested.
Events of the Salt Riot
A desperate crowd began to riot. The commoners sacked the houses of the boyars, and the enraged people moved towards the Kremlin. The basis of the crowd were small merchants, artisans. Some dissatisfied nobles and even archers who sided with the people joined the procession.
Protesters set fire to entire neighborhoods and longed for reprisals against the boyars. The rebels brutally murdered Leonty Pleshcheev, the head of the Zemsky department, and executed the head of the Ambassadorial office, Nazariy Pure. The same fate soon befell the head of the Pushkar order, Peter Trakhaniotov.
Only Boris Morozov, the tsar’s favorite, escaped the massacre. The ruler himself promised to remove him from all affairs and exile him to the Kirillo-Belozersky monastery, which was done on the night of June 11-12.
Salt riot – the results of the uprising
The rebellion lasted about 10 days – by June 11, most of the centers of the uprising were liquidated.